Adam Hug
Trustee
Adam Hug served as Director of the Foreign Policy Centre from November 2017 to December 2022, refounding the organisation with a new organisational structure (FPC Think Tank Ltd) and Board of Trustees. He had previously been the Policy Director at the Foreign Policy Centre from 2008-2017. His research focused on human rights and governance (particularly in the former Soviet Union), UK foreign policy and EU issues. He is currently the Leader of Westminster City Council and a trustee of the Royal Parks, in addition to remaining on the board of the FPC.
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[ID] => 6270
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[post_date] => 2021-12-06 00:10:31
[post_date_gmt] => 2021-12-05 23:10:31
[post_content] => The nature of conflict in the world is shifting, along with the challenges they present for the UK. The number of violent conflicts today is as high as at any point since the end of World War II and they are lasting longer due to complex transnational dynamics and increasing internationalisation. Fragile and conflict affected countries (FCACs) pose threats to international peace and security, undermining the stability of neighbouring countries, provide opportunities for transnational terrorist networks and criminal groups to operate, drive displacement of populations and provide opportunities for the UK’s geopolitical competitors to exploit for strategic advantage.
The UK has significant experience and expertise engaging in FCACs. However, the UK’s approach to the world and its capacities to do so are changing. The 2020 Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy outlines a strategic framework for how the UK engages with the world. It calls for a more joined up and strategic approach between the foreign policy tools which the UK has available. Recent institutional changes, including the merger of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and the Department for International Development (DFID) into the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), provide an opportunity to more explicitly develop that joined up approach – particularly when dealing with complex, multidimensional problems such as those driving conflict in FCACs.
This essay collection looks at how various aspects of the UK’s foreign policy engagement in FCACs is adapting to these changes and the impact these may have on peace and conflict in FCACs. It makes several key recommendations to inform how the UK undertakes future engagement in FCACs. The UK should:
Саяси салада және одан да тыс салада туындайтын адам құқығы мәселелерін шешуде полиция мен түрме жүйесін бақылауды жақсарту қажеттілігі туындауда. Полиция қызметінің мәдениетін өзгерту үшін Ішкі істер министрлігін реформалауды және полицияға қатысты шағымдарды жаңа тәуелсіз орган арқылы бақылауды жақсарту шаралары қажет. Тағы бір ықтимал мүмкіндік Тоқаевтың жергілікті әкімдерді біртіндеп сайлауы аясында басқарудың белгілі бір функцияларын жергілікті билікке беру болуы мүмкін, дегенмен елдің еркінен тыс орын алған құқық бұзушылықтарды шектеу үшін жалпыұлттық бақылау тетіктері сақталуы тиіс.
Азамат Оразалының мал ұрлады деген күдікпен ұсталып, полиция қолынан қаза табуы, полицейлер тарапынан ұсталғандарды азаптау мен қатыгездік көрсетуінің әлі күнге күрделі мәселе болып жалғасып келе жатқанын білдіреді[76]. Азаптаулардың алдын алудың ұлттық алдын алу тетігі (ҰАТ) арқылы хабарланған болжамды азаптау оқиғаларының санының көбеюі үнемі алаңдаушылық туғызады, дегенмен бұл механизм арқылы есептіліктің жақсаруын көрсетуі мүмкін, алайда қылмыскерлерді жазалау сирек және жеңіл болып қала береді[77]. Пандемияның әсері түрмелердің қатаң және антисанитарлық жағдайлары мен түрме қызметкерлерінің қатал қарым-қатынасы туралы бұрыннан келе жатқан қорқыныштарын күшейтті[78]. Осы аймақтағы басқа да елдердегідей, ҰАТ басқару жауапкершілігі жүктелген Адам құқықтары жөніндегі уәкілдің үкіметтік кеңсесі үлкен мүмкіндіктерге ие, яғни мемлекеттің басқа субъектілерін жауапкершілікке тартуға өкілеттігін және саяси жүйеден тәуелсіз болуын арттырады.
Қазақстанның көршілес мемлекеттердің көпшілігімен бірқатар проблемалары ортақ, заңның үстемдігіне ықпал ету және ешкімге тәуелсіз прокуратура (Айна Шорманбаева мен Амангелді Шорманбаев өз очерктерінде атап өткендей) және мемлекеттен тәуелсіздігі мен мүддесі жоқ сот жүйесінің тиімділігін арттыруға жылдар бойы халықаралық қоғамдастық тарапынан қолдау көрсетуге бағытталған реформалар мен бағдарламаларға қарамастан кедергі келтіруде. USAID бұл жағдайға былайша сипаттама береді: «Қазақстанда білімді және білікті судьялардың болуына қарамастан, сот жүйесі тұтастай алғанда (i) сот тәуелсіздігінің жоқтығынан, (ii) судьялардың жеткіліксіз дайындығынан зардап шегуде, яғни бұл күмәнді шешімдерге, (iii) мемлекетпен туындаған келіспеушілік жағдайларда шетелдіктерге нұқсан келтіруге және (iv) сыбайлас жемқорлыққа» жол беруде[79].
Мемлекеттің басқа өңірлеріндегідей, жеке пікір маңызды, себебі наразылық білдірушілер жеке тұлғаның пикет ұйымдастыруы және басқа да назар аударту әрекеттері арқылы отбасы мүшелерінің істеріне (саяси сипаттағы емес қылмыстар) шолу жасай алады[80]. Құқықтық жүйенің алдында тұрған кейбір қиындықтарды мойындай отырып, Нұр-Сұлтан қаржы орталығының кәсіпкерлері Ұлыбританияның 88-жастағы бұрынғы судьясы Лорд Вульф пен Ұлыбританияның құқық саласында танылған басқа да өкілдері басқаратын жалпы құқықтың ағылшын тілінде сөйлейтін жүйесін қолдана отырып, ұлттық құқықтық жүйені толығымен айналып өте алады[81].
2021 жылдың шілдесінде алғаш рет Германия үкіметінің GIZ Даму агенттігі мен Германия Халықаралық құқықтық ынтымақтастық қорының (IRZ) [82] жетекшілігімен бірлесе дайындалған әкімшілік құқықты біріктіретін (азаматтық процесті қоса алғанда) жаңа Әкімшілік рәсімдік-процестік кодекс күшіне енді. Әкімшілік рәсімдік-процестік кодекстің енгізілуіне байланысты елдегі жағдайдың, әсіресе саясаттан тыс мәселелер жақсарады деген үміт пайда болды. Сондай-ақ, Жоғарғы Соттың жаңа басшысы судьялардың неғұрлым тәуелсіз әрекет етуін қалайды деген қауесеттер таралды, десек те, мұны тәжірибеде дәлелдеу үшін әлі де ұзақ уақыт керек.
Осы жинақта Анна Гусарова елдегі адам құқықтары мәселелерінің туындауына қатысты өз жазбасында жаңа цифрлық технологияға көшу барысында құрылған жаңа дербес деректер базасының қауіпсіздігін сақтауға байланысты үкіметтің мүмкіндіктері мен іс-шараларына алаңдаушылық білдіреді. Бұл мәселенің шешімін табу мақсатында Гусарова жаңа заңдар қабылдауды, шенеуніктер мен құқық қорғау органдарының біліктілігін жоғарылатуды және COVID кезеңінде қытайлық модельде бақылаудың интрузивті жүйесіне әкеліп соқпас үшін ашықтықты жақтайды.
Қытайдың Қазақстан экономикасындағы рөлі мен күтілетін стратегиялық қаупі туралы мәселелер елді саяси және әлеуметтік тұрғыдан біріктіруде маңызды күшке айналды, бұл жоғарыда айтылғандай, Қазақстан үкіметі тарапынан қатты алаңдаушылық тудырды. Алайда, Қытайдағы бұл ішкі мәселелер жергілікті халықтың алаңдаушылық әрекеттеріне әкелген жалғыз тақырып емес. Қазақстандағы кейбір отбасылардың Қытайда туыстары болғандықтан Шыңжаң аймағындағы 1,5 миллион этникалық қазақтарды (сондай -ақ ұйғырларды) қудалау, саяси шиеленістің негізгі көзі болды. 2018 жылы осы мәселе төңірегінде наразылық қозғалыстары күшейе түсті, ал «Атажұрт Еріктілері» (Отан еріктілері) Шыңжаңдағы жағдайды заңдық негізде анықтауға бағытталған ғаламдық күш-жігерге қатысатын негізгі ҮЕҰ болды[83].
Қазақстан үкіметі жергілікті халықтың көңіл-күйі мен экономикалық және саяси ықпалы артып келе жатқан Бейжің тарапынан қатты қысымның арасында қалып қойды (және бірнеше бағыт бойынша қытайлықтарға қарсы наразылық артты). 2018 жылы бұл жағдайды жеңілдету үшін Қытайдағы 2500 этникалық қазақтың Қазақстанға кетуіне рұқсат берілді.
Алайда, 2019 жылдың наурызында қазақстандық шенеуніктер «Атажұрт Еріктілері» ұйымының кеңсесіне тексеру жүргізіп, оның негізін қалаушы, этникалық қазақ Серікжан Біләшті Қытай үкіметін сынға алды, ұлтаралық араздықты қоздырып, алауыздық тудыруға бағытталған әрекеттер жасады деген күдікпен қамауға алды[84].
БҰҰ-ның ерікті ұстау жөніндегі жұмыс тобы Біләштің қудалануы адам құқықтары саласындағы халықаралық заңның бұзылуы деп мәлімдеп, Қылмыстық Кодекстің 174-бабын (әлеуметтік, ұлттық, рулық, нәсілдік, таптық немесе діни өшпенділікті қоздыру туралы) тым жалпылама, заңдық негізі жоқ деп сынға алғанына қарамастан, Біләш жеті жылға бас бостандығынан айырылып, түрмеге қамалмас үшін «бостандық, бостандық» бұйрығын қабылдап, өз қызметін тоқтатуға келісім берді[85]. Мемлекет тарапынан қысым, жаңа қылмыстық істер мен оның YouTube-тегі арнасын тартып алуға тырысқан адамдардың әсерінен Қазақстанда жұмысын жалғастыра алмаған ол 2020 жылдың жазында Түркияға, содан кейін АҚШ -қа қашып кетті.[86] Әйелдерден құралған шағын топтың Алматыдағы Қытай консулдығының алдында наразылық акцияларын жалғастыруы болмаса, бұл мәселе бойынша Қазақстанда жергілікті деңгейде белсенділік бәсеңдеген, полиция Байболат Күнболат (Біләштің тіркелмеген «Атажұрт» ұйымын басқаруды жалғастырушы) сияқты Қытайдағы туыстарын босату үшін наразылық акцияларын жалғастырған белсенділерді қудалауда[87].
Ұлтаралық қақтығыстар тек Қытайға немесе Ресейге ғана қатысты емес, сонымен қатар 2020 жылдың ақпанында жол-көлік оқиғасы салдарынан болған қанды зорлық -зомбылық жергілікті этникалық қазақтар мен дүнген ұлты өкілдері шағын тобының мүшелері арасындағы шиеленісті көрсетті. Масанчи ауылында болған осы ұлтаралық қақтығыстың салдарынан тоғыз дүнген мен бір қазақ қаза тапты, көптеген адамдар жарақаттанды, көптеген үйлер мен сауда орындары өртенді немесе қиратылды[88]. Қазақ ұлты арасындағы ұлтшылдықтың ұлғаюы Назарбаев саяси жобасының негізі деп санаған ұлтаралық тұрақтылыққа нұқсан келтіруі мүмкін қауіп туғызды.
Еңбек құқығы
Осыған дейін сөз болғандай және Михра Риттманның мақаласында айтылғандай, еңбек нарығындағы ахуал онжылдық үй шаруашылығының табысына қысым мен экономикадағы құрылымдық өзгерістерден кейін де күрделі мәселе болып қала беруде. Жаңаөзен оқиғасынан кейінгі жылдарда үкімет тарапынан болған күрес пен қуғын-сүргін мұнайшыларға өз құқықтарын қорғау үшін ірі шаралар ұйымдастыруға мүмкіндікті бұрынғыдан да қиындатты. Михра Риттманның эссесінде кәсіподақ жетекшілері Лариса Харькова, Амина Елеусінова мен Нұрбек Құшақбаевқа қатысты сот істері мен сотталулшылардың қайғылы оқиғаларының деректері берілген, оларға кәсіподақ қызметіне қатысуға «бостандықты шектеу» тыйымы салынған.
Бұрын Лариса Харькова басқарған тәуелсіз конфедерациялар, алғашында Қазақстан тәуелсіз кәсіподақтар конфедерациясы (ҚСПК), содан кейін Қазақстан Республикасы тәуелсіз кәсіподақтар конфедерациясы (КХДРК) халықаралық қысым мен жергілікті наразылықтарға, яғни 2017 жылы кәсіподақтың 400 мүшесінің аштық жариялауына қарамастан, бюрократиялық қысымға байланысты біртіндеп таратылды[89]. Ең ірі, мемлекет мойындаған және мемлекет қолдаған кәсіподақтар конфедерациясы-Қазақстанның Кәсіподақтар федерациясы (ҚХРК) өзінің тәуелсіздікке қатысты стандарттарды сақтамағаны үшін Халықаралық кәсіподақтар конфедерациясының (ХАОК) мүшелігінен бас тартты[90].
Отын және энергетика өнеркәсібі қызметкерлері кәсіподақ ұйымының жетекшісі Ерлан Балтабай (Харьков КНПРК құрамына кіреді) 2017 жылдан бері түрмеде отырды және көптеген күмәнді айыптармен түрмеден босатылады, соның ішінде 2019 жылғы алғашқы жеті жылдық түрмеге қамау жазасы бар. Оның кәсіподақтағы қызметіне де осындай ұзақ уақытқа тыйым салынғанмен, халықаралық қысымнан кейін оның алғашқы бас бостандығынан айыру жазасына президенттің кешірімімен босатылғанымен, қайтадан бес айлық жаңа үкім шығарылды[91]. Ол ақыры 2020 жылдың наурызында бостандыққа шықты, алайда оның қызметіне қатысты «бостандығын шектеу» 2026 жылға дейін созылады[92].
Еңбек белсендісі Ержан Елшібаев 2019 жылы Жаңаөзендегі жұмыссыздық наразылығын басқарғаны және онымен қоса Назарбаевқа айтқан сынының Интернетте таралуына байланысты аса күмәнді айыптар бойынша бес жылға бас бостандығынан айырылып, түрмеге жабылады. Бұл БҰҰ -ның Ерікті ұстау жөніндегі жұмыс тобының оны тез арада босатуға шақырған қаулысына және түрме күзетшілерінің оған қатыгездік көрсетуі мүмкін деген алаңдаушылығына қарамастан, ешқандай оң шешімін таппады[93].
Кәсіподақ басшыларына қарсы қолданылған қамау әдістермен қатар, үкімет жұмысшыларды мұнай секторын «оңтайландыру» және мұнай өндіруші компаниялардың функцияларын жекешелендіру жөніндегі үкіметтің жоспарларына келістіруге тырысу үшін «зейнеткерлікке уақытынан бұрын шығу» яғни, бес жылдық жалақысының 50 пайызы көлемінде біржолғы төлем жасау схемасын ойлап тапты.
Бұл көбінесе оларды басқа жұмыс түрлеріне немесе жеке кәсіп ашуға қайта даярлауға қолдау көрсетумен, сондай-ақ ірі саяси толқулардың алдын алу мақсатында ереуілдерді болдырмау немесе тоқтату секілді басқа да шараларымен қатар жүрді. Үкіметтің жүйені модернизациялау философиясына сәйкес, олар кәсіподақ қызметкерлеріне ереуілге бармай-ақ, еңбек кодексі арқылы өз шағымдарының шешімін қалай табуға болатынын үйретуді ұсынды.
2020 жылы кәсіподақ ұйымы туралы заңға енгізілген көптен күткен түзетулер дұрыс жүзеге асса, болашақтан үлкен үміт күтуге болады. Халықаралық еңбек ұйымының бірнеше рет сынынан кейін болған өзгерістер жергілікті немесе салалық кәсіподақтарды ұлттық федерацияның құрамына кіруге мәжбүрлемейді[94]. Алайда, отын-энергетика саласы қызметкерлерінің өнеркәсіптік кәсіподағы 2021 жылдың ақпанында 2014 жылғы ескі кәсіподақ заңының 2020 жылғы түзетулерде жойылған ережелерін сақтамағаны үшін алты айға тоқтатылғанын ескерсек, әзірше көңіл көншітерлік өзгеріс байқалмайды[95]. Алға жылжудың болмауы ХЕҰ 2021 жылдың маусымында Стандарттарды қолдану жөніндегі комитеттің отырысында Қазақстанның реформаларды жүзеге асыра алмауына қатысты сынды жалғастыруға мәжбүр етті[96].
Бүкіл әлемдегі серіктестері сияқты, соңғы жылдары Қазақстанның гиг-экономикасында айтарлықтай жақсару байқалды, соның ішінде пандемия кезінде жеткізіп беру қызметін арттыру секілді жұмысшылардың жалақылары мен еңбек жағдайларын жақсарту мақсатында басшылардың бірлесе қабылдаған жаңа шешімдері ерекше маңызға ие. Соңғы бірнеше айда Wolt және Glovo халықаралық компанияларында жұмыс істейтін курьерлер қоғамдық наразылықтар мен бейресми ереуілдерге қатысты, ал жергілікті Chocofood фирмасы мұндай наразылықтарға қатысудан аулақ болды[97]. Компаниялар мен үкімет тарапынан репрессия қаупіне қарамастан курьерлерді кәсіподақ ұйымдарына біріктіру әрекеттері жалғасуда.
БАҚ бостандығы
Жоғарыда сипатталған саяси шиеленісті ескере отырып, Қазақстанда бұқаралық ақпарат құралдары бостандығының бірқатар проблемалары бар. Қазақстан «Шекарасыз репортерлер» (RSF) ұйымының 2021 жылға арналған Әлемдік баспасөз бостандығы индексінде 180 елдің ішінде 155 -ші орында[98]. Басқалар сияқты, мемлекеттің оппозициямен байланысы бар бұқаралық ақпарат құралдарына және оны сынайтын басқа ұйымдарға қатысты қарым-қатынаста белгілі бір дәрежеде дифференциация бар. Vlast.kz және Mediazona сияқты тәуелсіз ақпараттық сайттар оқырмандар санын арттырып, Тоқаев дәуірінде салмақты журналистік зерттеулер жүргізе алды, ашық айта бастады және жүйенің рұқсат етілген сынау деңгейінің шегін тексерді. Қазақстанда Азат Еуропа/Азаттық радиосы (RFE / RL) елде жұмыс істей алды және АҚШ үкіметі олардың мүддесін қорғайтындықтан, белгілі бір қорғанысқа ие болды, бірақ журналистері наразылық акциялары мен басқа даулы мәселелерді жариялау кезінде қысымға ұшырайды. Instagram (елдегі ең көп қолданылатын әлеуметтік медиа платформасы) және YouTube сыншылар мекеніне айналуда, дегенмен олар көбінесе партиялық саяси мәселелерге емес, әлеуметтік -экономикалық мәселелерге назар аударады[99].
Қазақстанда дәстүрлі БАҚ- тың мүмкіндігі айтарлықтай шектеулі: көптеген оппозициялық және тәуелсіз газеттер жабылуға мәжбүр болды. Тәуелсіз телеарналар 90 -шы жылдардың аяғында лицензиялық төлемақыларының қымбаттауы мен басшылықпен келіспейтіндерге бюрократиялық қысымның күшеюінен кейін эфирден қуылды[100]. 2002-2016 жылдардағы билікпен мысық-тышқан ойынынан кейін Қазақстанның ең көрнекті оппозициялық «Республика» газетінің соңғы нұсқасы мен қосымшасы жабылуға мәжбүр болды, оның бірқатар журналистері түрмеге жабылды. Баспадан әлі жарық көріп келе жатқан бірнеше тәуелсіз баспасөзге, мысалы, Оралдағы «Уральская Неделя» мен Алматыдағы «Дат» газетіне әлі де қатты қысым көрсетілуде. Мысалы, «Уральская неделя» газетінің редакторы Лұқпан Ахмедьяров осы жылдың басында жергілікті сыбайлас жемқорлыққа қатысты сот ісінің деректері туралы ақпаратты жариялады деген күдікке тап болды[101]. 2012 жылдың басында Ақмедьяров тағы бір сыбайлас жемқорлық дауын әшкерелеген жазбасы үшін зорлық -зомбылыққа ұшырады.
Шенеуніктер тәуелсіз журналистерді аккредитациядан өткізуден үнемі бас тартты, олардың үкіметтің ресми ақпараттарын жариялау мүмкіндігін шектеді, қазіргі таңда ережелер ресми түрде күрделенді, яғни олар журналистерді үкіметтік іс -шараларды жариялау кезінде оларды ресми сүйемелдеушілерден («қожайыннан») айыруды талап етеді. Осылайша, соңғы жылдары рұқсат етілмеген наразылық акциялары туралы хабарлау кезінде БАҚ қызметкерлері бірнеше рет тұтқынға алынды немесе қысымға ұшырады[102]. Ғалия Әженованың мақаласында көптеген осындай оқиғаларға назар аударады.
Қазақстандық интернет-БАҚ-тардың болашағында ескеретін арнайы ережелері бар. COVID кезінде жалған ақпаратты тарату туралы заңдар репортажды және атап айтқанда, саясатқа қатысы бар онлайн-комментаторлардың қызметін шектеу үшін қолданылды[103]. Полиция тұтқындап, Назарбаевқа қатысты пародиялары үшін өзінің инстаграмдағы арнасын жабуға мәжбүр болған (жалған ақпарат таратты деген күдікпен) сатирик Темірлан Еңсебектің ісі жақында «жала жабу» (жала жабу) бойынша қылмыстық құқық бұзушылық жойылғанын еске салғанымен, Қылмыстық кодексте «қорлауға» («басқа адамның ар-намысы мен қадір -қасиетін қорлауға») және атап айтқанда, мемлекеттік қызметшілерді қорлауға қарсы заңдар сақталған (соның ішінде 373-баптың нақты ережелеріне сәйкес, ұлт көсемі Назарбаевқа және оның отбасына тіл тигізгені үшін Еңсебекті үш жылға дейін бас бостандығынан айыруға әкелуі мүмкін)[104]. Ғалия Әженова жала жабудың қылмыстық істер кодексінен әкімшілік кодекске ауысуы жергілікті полицияны сөз бостандығының күрделі мәселелерін шешуге тырысуға мәжбүрлегенін, сондықтан жергілікті билікті сынға алғаны үшін көптеген әкімшілік істер қозғауға мәжбүр еткенін атап өтеді. Ақпарат министрлігі цифрлық ақпарат құралдары (бұқаралық коммуникация) туралы жаңа заң жобасын дайындауда, оған «интернет-ресурстар» анықтамасы енуі мүмкін. Осылайша интернет БАҚ-тың қазіргі салыстырмалы түрдегі бостандығын шектеу әдісі ретінде баспасөз бен теледидарда қолданылатын түрлі шектеулерді онлайн -платформаларға таратады.
Таза пайда
Қазақстанның табиғи ресурстарға бай болуы саяси ықпалы бар кейбір адамдардың 90-жылдардың ортасы мен одан кейінгі даму жылдарындағы мұнай үшін күрес кезінде тұңғыш президент Назарбаевтың отбасынан да артық баюға мүмкіндік берді. Отбасы байлығының шынайы мөлшерін бағалау қиынға соғады, бірақ Азаттық радиосының (RFE / RL) жақында жүргізген журналистік зерттеуі Назарбаевтың отбасы мүшелері мен олардың туыстарының 20 жыл ішінде алты елде, Еуропа мен АҚШ-та кемінде 785 миллион долларға жылжымайтын мүлік сатып алғанын анықтады[105].
2002-2003 жылдары қоғамның назарын аударған басқарушы элитаның сыбайлас жемқорлығы туралы алғашқы ірі қоғамдық пікірталастың бірі - «Қазақгейт» дауы болды, сол кезде АҚШ прокуратурасы Президент Назарбаев пен басқа да жоғары лауазымды тұлғалар Теңіз кеніштерінде келісімшарт жасауға көмектесу үшін пайдалануға америкалық мұнай компанияларының 80 миллион долларға жуық ақшасын Швейцарияның банк шоттарына аударды деп мәлімдеді.
Осы істің негізгі бел ортасында жүрген америкалық кәсіпкер (және Қазақстан президентінің кеңесшісі) Джеймс Гиффен іс барысында ОББ -мен (ЦРУ-мен) жұмыс істегеніне нақты негіз болуына байланысты, ол қаржылық аударылымдар жасағанына қарамастан, одан айыптаудың көп бөлігі алынып тасталып, нәтижесінде түрмеге қамалмады[106]. Бұл оқиға туралы жазған қазақ журналистерінің жолы болмады, себебі бұл істің негізгі тергеушілерінің бірі Сергей Дуванов кейін қыз зорлады деген айыппен түрмеге жабылды, ал «Республика» сияқты газеттерге бұл оқиғаны жариялауға қысым көрсетілді[107].
«Қазақгейт» сияқты, айыптаулар кейде Назарбаевтың өзіне тікелей қатысты болса да (соның ішінде жақында, америкалық дипломаттар өздерінің қаржылық көмекшісі деп санайтын кәсіпкер Болат Өтемұратов Британдық соттармен Әблязовтан 3 миллиард доллар активтері бар БТА активтерін өндіріп алу туралы оқиғаға қатысқан кезде), көбінесе отбасының әл -ауқаты туралы қоғамдық талқылаулар оның балаларына, әсіресе оның екі үлкен қызының күйеуіне қатысты болды[108].
Динара Құлыбаева мен оның күйеуі Тимур Құлыбаев, мемлекеттік қызметте (Самұрық-Қазына ұлттық әл-ауқат қорын қосқанда) және энергетика саласында (соның ішінде ресейлік энергетикалық алпауыт Газпром директорлар кеңесінің мүшесі) көптеген жоғары лауазымды қызметтерді атқарған кәсіпкер Тимур Құлыбаев Қазақстандағы байлығы жағынан екінші ірі тұлға болды[109]. Құлыбаевтар Ұлыбританияда қомақты активке ие, соның ішінде князь Эндрюдің бұрынғы үйінің (Саннингхилл-Парк) иесі екені белгілі және бұл байланыс яғни Құлыбаевтың Ұлыбританиядағы сауда палатасының өкілі болған кезде оған ханзаданың қолдауы мен оның бұрынғы сүйіктісі Гога Ашкеназимен жақындығы туралы ақпараттар жиі-жиі британдық баспасөзде жарияланып тұрады[110]. Жақында, 2000 жылдың желтоқсанында Financial Times басылымы Құлыбаевтың қытайлық құбыр келісімшартынан миллиондаған долларды заңсыз пайдалану схемасына қатысы бар екенін жариялады[111].
Назарбаевтың үлкен қызы Дариға Назарбаева ұзақ жылдар бойы Қазақстанның қоғамдық өмірінде ең жоғары беделге ие тұлға болды және оны әкесінің ықтимал мұрагері ретінде жиі атап жүрді. 1990 жылдары медиа мансаптан кейін, ол 2003 жылы өзінің «Асар» партиясымен саясатқа ресми түрде кірді, ал 2004 жылы Мәжіліске депутат болып сайланды. Оның партиясы ресми түрде әкесінің «Отан» партиясымен бірігіп, Қазақстанның осы күнге дейінгі басқарушы «Нұр Отан» партиясын құрды. Келесі парламентте белсенділік танытпай, 2012 жылы «Нұр-Отан» партиясының тізіміне қайта қосылды, 2014-2015 жылдары «Нұр-Отанның» парламенттік көшбасшысы және Мәжіліс төрағасының орынбасары, бір жыл премьер-министрдің орынбасары болды, содан кейін 2016 жылы сенатқа қосылды. Тоқаев президенттікке тағайындалғаннан кейін Дариға Сенат төрайымы және президенттікке ресми түрде келесі үміткер болды.
2007 жылға дейін ол аты-шулы олигарх Рахат Әлиевте тұрмыста болды, оның қылмыспен байланысы мен қаржылық операцияларға қатысты әйгілі болған беделінің арқасында жүйенің сенімділігін бірнеше рет арттырды. Соңында Әлиев Венаға Австрия мен ЕҚЫҰ -дағы елші ретінде жіберілді, себебі оның екі банкирді өлтіруге қатысы бар деген қауесет тарала бастады[112]. Ақырында оған Қазақстанда осы қылмыстары үшін сырттай айып тағылып, үкім шығарылды, сонымен қатар оппозициялық саясаткер Алтынбек Сәрсенбаевтың өлтірілуі, оның бұрынғы сүйіктісі Анастасия Новикованың күдікті өлімі, азаптау, адам ұрлау айғақтары мен ақшаны заңсыз пайдалану туралы айыптаулар бар. Ақырында, Әлиев 2015 жылы банкирлер өліміне қатысты сот үкімін күту кезінде, Австрия түрмесінде дарға асылған күйінде табылды[113].
Назарбаева мен оның отбасына тиесілі құны 80 миллион фунт стерлинг көлеміндегі британдық үш үйге меншікті тоқтату үшін анықталмаған табыс шешімін қолдануға тырысқан Ұлыбританияның Ұлттық қылмыс агенттігінің Әлиевке қатысты іс әрекеті сәтсіз аяқталды. Қылмыспен күрес жөніндегі ұлттық агенттік бұл мүлік Әлиевтің адал емес табысынан алынғанын алға тартты, бірақ сот бұл активтер өзінің ақшасына сатып алынды деген Назарбаеваның ұстанымын қолдады[114]. Алайда, сот процесі аяқталғаннан кейін Дариғаны 2020 жылдың мамырында президент Тоқаев күтпеген жерден Сенат төрайымы лауазымынан (және президенттік мұрагерліктен) алып тастады және бұл оның байлығының ашылуына қоғамдық ықпал немесе оны алып тастауға әкелген ішкі билік күресі салдарынан болғаны екені әлі белгісіз. Кейінірек 2020 жылы Назарбаеваның Ұлыбританиядағы акцияларының мөлшері туралы жаңа мәліметтер, яғни ол Лондонның Орталық Бейкер көшесіндегі құны 140 миллион фунт стерлинг тұратын ғимарат иесі екені анықталған кезде белгілі болды. Жеке бас байлығының көлемі туралы жаңа деректердің айқындалуына қарамастан, ол 2021 жылы қаңтарда қазақ саясатына қайта оралып, Мәжіліске «Нұр Отан» партиясының депутаты болды[115].
Жоғарыда Назарбаев пен Мұқтар Әблязовтың қыздарының жағдайы көрсеткендей, Ұлыбритания - қазақстандық элитаның инвестициясы көп тартылған негізгі елдің бірі. Жақында жүргізілген талдау көрсеткендей, Қазақстан 2008-2015 жылдар аралығында Ұлыбритания резиденті мәртебесін алған 205 қазақстандық Ұлыбританияның бірінші деңгейдегі инвесторлық визасының (немесе оларды Алтын Виза деп атайды) негізгі бенефициарларының бірі болды. (Халықтың саны жағынан бесінші және жан басына шаққандағы шағын мемлекетті есептемегенде ең үлкен ел). Элиталық жылжымайтын мүлік нарығы Қазақстан байлығының репозиторийі бола алғанымен, Ұлыбритания үкіметінің соңғы мәліметтері көрсеткендей, Қазақстаннан Ұлыбританияға шетелдік тікелей инвестиция 2019 жылы бір миллион фунт стерлингке жетпеді[116].
Бұрынғы бірінші отбасы тәуелсіздік алғаннан кейін Қазақстанда байлыққа қол жеткізе алатын саяси байланысы бар адамдардан алыстады. Нақты мысал ретінде жақында «Азаттық» RFE/RL радиосы Білім министрлігінің бұрынғы жоғары лауазымды тұлғалары, атап айтқанда Бақытжан Жұмағұловтың отбасы Қазақстанның коммерциялық колледждері мен университеттерінің көпшілігіне қалай иелік ететінін ашты[117]. Экономика секторындағы саяси ықпалға қол жеткізу шенеуніктерге, олардың отбасы мен серіктестерін байытуға мүмкіндік берді.
Дін
Қазақстандағы басқа да көптеген мәселелердегідей, мемлекеттің дінге көзқарасы оның азаматтар арасында да, тұтастай жүйе арасындағы тұрақтылықты қамтамасыз етуге ұмтылуына негізделген. Қазақстан - негізінен ислам дінін ұстанған ел (72%), бірақ елдегі орыс халқының өмір сүретінін ескерсек, православиялық христиандар басқа аз ғана топтармен байланысты дін өкілдерінің үлесімен салыстырғанда айтарлықтай үлеске (23%) ие[118]. Осылайша, Қазақстан тәуелсіздік алғаннан кейін демографиялық өзгерістер мен Назарбаевтың ұлт туралы өзіндік көзқарасының нәтижесінде Орталық Азиядағы көршілерімен салыстырғанда исламдық бірегейлік қазақтың ұлттық болмысының құрылыс материалы ретінде ерекше рөлге ие болмады (сонымен қатар қазақтардың бірегейлігіне қатысты алғашында ұстамдылық танытты және этникалық қазақтың бірегейлігін танытудың өзіндік ерекшелігі ретінде Самұрық құсы сияқты қазақтың халықтық рәміздері арқылы сіңіруге тырысты). Осылайша, Қазақстан конституциясы өзінің зайырлы мәртебесін сақтай отырып, исламға немесе басқа да дінге ешқандай сілтеме жасамайды[119].
Қазақстан бұл тәсілді, яғни дінді отандық брендтің негізгі бөлігі ретінде отандық қана емес, әлемдік деңгейде қолданды. 2003 жылдан бастап Қазақстанда әлемдік және дәстүрлі дін көшбасшыларының съезі деп аталатын Назарбаевтың идеясына негізделген конфессияаралық бастама ұйымдастырылды, ол әлемдік діндердің ірі «негізгі» немесе «дәстүрлі» конфессияларының жоғары лауазымды тұлғаларын біріктіреді[120]. Ол Қазақстан үкіметінің көзқарасы бойынша, ұлттық деңгейде іс жүргізе алатын және оны толеранттылық пен бейбітшілік бейнесі ретінде халықаралық деңгейде танытушы өзара толеранттылық пен түсінікке құрылған негізгі институттарды, сондай-ақ Қазақстанның (және Назарбаевтың жеке рөлін) осы мақсаттарды жүзеге асырудағы ұйымдастырушы ретіндегі рөлін насихаттайды. Алайда, «дәстүрлі ағымға» кірмейтін діни топтар үшін бұл әлдеқайда қиын болуы мүмкін. Нәтижесінде Қазақстан діни толеранттылықты насихаттау үшін халықаралық актерлерден қолдау табады және сонымен бірге АҚШ Мемлекеттік Департаментінің Халықаралық діни бостандық жөніндегі комиссиясының Діни бостандық бойынша арнайы бақылау тізіміне енгізу үшін ұсынылады (бірақ Мемлекеттік департамент әлі де бұл шешімді қабылдаған жоқ)[121]. Қазақстанда басқа зайырлы әлемдегі сияқты негізгі мәселе тіркелмеген діни топтарға байланысты, мемлекет оларды тіркеуді қиындатады және оған қатаң шаралар қолданады. Қазақстанның 2011 жылғы «Діни қызмет және діни бірлестіктер туралы» Заңында қандай топтарға және қалай тіркелуге болатыны жөнінде қатаң талаптар қойылған, жергілікті діни ұйымды құру үшін кемінде 50 қазақстандық азамат қажет, ал ұлттық ұйым құру үшін олардың саны 5000-нан кем емес (әр облыста және Алматы, Нұр-Сұлтан мен Шымкент қаласынан 300-ден) болу керек[122]. Сондай-ақ, діни материалдарды тек Иегова куәгерлері мен евангелистік протестанттық топтарға қатысты тек тіркелген діни топтардың оны таратуға рұқсат беру талаптары сияқты, конверсияға қатаң шектеулер бар. Алайда, жыл сайын осы заңға байланысты әкімшілік құқық бұзушылық санының төмендеу үрдісі байқалуда, мәселен, Forum 18 діни бостандық ұйымы мәліметтері бойынша, 2020 жылы 139 іс тіркелсе, бұл көрсеткіш 2017 жылы 284 болған[123].
Жаңа тәуелсіз мемлекет кеңестік діни басқару мен тіркеу мұрасына негізделіп, Қазақстан мұсылмандары діни бірлестігін құрды, оған барлық тіркелген мешіттер кірді. Мектептерде мектеп формасы саясатын кеңінен қолдану арқылы, хиджаб сияқты діни киімдерді киюге қатысты шектеу қойылды[124].
Басқа аймақтардағы сияқты, діни радикализация бойынша қауіп терроризм қаупі мен мемлекеттік бақылаудан тыс топтардың көбеюінен де туындайды. «Таблиғи жамағат» және «Хизб-ут-Тахрир» сияқты зорлық-зомбылықсыз экстремистік топтарға тыйым салынған және «экстремистік» термині зорлық-зомбылықпен байланысы жоқ үкіметке сын айтушыларды (діни және зайырлы) тұтқындауда кеңінен қолданылады.
Әйел және LGBTQ+ құқығы
Қазақстандағы әйелдердің саяси көшбасшылығына қатысты ЕҚЫҰ 2021 жылғы қаңтардағы парламенттік сайлау кезінде «әйелдер 17 (аймақтық) әкімнің тек біреуі және 22 министрлік лауазымның екеуін ғана атқарғанын» атап өтеді. 30 пайыздық квота енгізілгеніне қарамастан, жаңадан сайланған Мәжілістегі әйелдер саны іс жүзінде 29 орыннан 28 орынға қысқарды[125].
Жоғарыда және доктор Халида Әжіғұлованың эссесінде айтылғандай, әйелдердің құқықтарын жақсартуға арналған жаңа заңнаманы енгізу әрекеттері консервативті әлеуметтік күштердің қарсылығына тап болды. Қазіргі уақытта Қазақстанда тұрмыстық зорлық -зомбылыққа қарсы күрес туралы заңнамалар әлсіз және оған қатысты істер әдетте Қылмыстық кодекстің (бұл тек ауыр шабуыл кезінде қолданылады) емес, әкімшілік кодекстің (кішігірім құқық бұзушылықтар) негізінде қаралады, бұл тұрмыстық зорлық -зомбылық жағдайларына қарағанда көшеде темекі қалдығын тастағаны үшін айыппұл салудың (ұсақ бұзақылық ретінде жіктеледі) қатаң екенін көрсетеді[126]. 2020 жылы әкімшілік кодекспен 45 000 тұрмыстық зорлық-зомбылық істері қозғалды, бірақ бұл жағдай есепке алынбағандықтан шынайы жағдайдың деңгейінен әлдеқайда төмен, тіпті 60%-дан астам іс отбасылық татуластыру мақсатында қысыммен шешім шығарылғанға дейін тоқтатылды[127]. Президент Тоқаев өзінің адам құқықтары туралы соңғы Жарлығының бір бөлігі ретінде тұрмыстық зорлық -зомбылық туралы заңды қайта қабылдағаны дұрыс шешім деп бағалауға келеді, бірақ «жеңіл соққы» қылмыстық құқық бұзушылық ретінде қарастырылады ма, жоқ па, оның егжей-тегжейлі талқылануы мүмкін[128]. Сонымен қатар, әлеуметтік консервативті күштердің қысымымен жыныстық қудалауға қарсы заң шығару әрекеті тоқтап қалды.
Халықаралық әйелдер күні (8 наурыз) көбінесе Орталық Азиядағы әйелдер құқығын қорғаушылар мен әлеуметтік консервативті күштер үшін қызу уақыт болды. 2021 жылы Әйелдер шеруіне алғаш рет Алматы қаласы әкімшілігінің рұқсат беруін оң қадам деп бағалауға болады және 500 -ден 1000 -ға дейін әйелдер құқығын қорғаушылар Қазақстандағы ең үлкен әйелдер шеруі деп аталып кеткен наразылық акциясына шықты[129]. Алайда, мемлекет бұрынғысынша әйелдер мен LGBTQ + құқықтары үшін «радикалды» үгіт-насихат жүргізетін топтардың әрекетіне жол бермеуді жалғастыруда. «Фемината» тобына бірнеше рет ресми тіркеуден бас тартылды және жақында Шымкентте гендерлік теңдік мәселесі бойынша жабық кездесу кезінде полицияның «өз қауіпсіздігі үшін» ұстағанына дейін оның басшыларына белгісіз біреулер шабуыл жасаған[130].
Жалпылама мағынада LGBTQ+ қазақстандықтар үшін жағдай ауыр болып қала береді. 1998 жылы гомосексуализм декриминализацияланды (Өзбекстан мен Түркіменстаннан айырмашылығы), бірақ қоғамды қорғаудың құқықтық негізі бөлшектелген (Конституцияның кемсітушілікке қарсы жалпы ережелеріне негізделген) және қоғамның басым бөлігінде оларға деген мәдени қарым-қатынас терең дұшпандық күйінде қалып отыр[131].
2015 және 2018-19 жылдары үкімет LGBTQ + қоғамдастығы мүшелері мен құқық қорғаушылардың жыныстық бейімділігі туралы ашық сөйлеу мүмкіндігін шектейтін ресейлік үлгілегі «дәстүрлі емес жыныстық бейімделуді насихаттау» заңын қабылдауға тырысты[132]. Бұған жергілікті кампаниялар мен Қазақстанның батыстық серіктестерінің қысымына байланысты кейінге шегерілді, бірақ жуық арада парламентте осыған қатысты әрекеттерді қайталауға тырысуы мүмкін деген қауіп бар. Әйгерім Камидоланың эссесінде кемсітушілікке қарсы қолданыстағы заңнан «гендерлік» терминді алып тастайтын және оны «гендерлік теңдікпен» алмастыратын «Қазақстан Республикасының кейбір заңнамалық актілеріне отбасы және гендерлік саясат мәселелері бойынша өзгерістер мен толықтырулар енгізу туралы» заң жобасын қабылдау бойынша қолданыстағы шаралар көрсетілген.
Бұл қадам посткеңестік кеңістіктегі либералды емес немесе батыстық «гендерлікке қарсы» белсенділердің гендер ұғымын ЛГБТ + мен әйелдердің құқықтарына («гендерлік идеология») бекітілген жалпы белгі ретінде стигматизацияланған оқиғаны көрсетеді. Сонымен қоса, транссексуалдардың құқықтары мен оның қорғалуы туралы пікірталастарда тар мағынада қолданылады.
Халықаралық ықпал
Осы уақытқа дейін Қазақстан көп векторлы сыртқы саясатты сәтті жүргізді, бұл оған күрделі аймақтық қатынастар орнатуға және әлемдік аренада елдің оң имиджін қалыптастыруға мүмкіндік берді.
Қазақстан Тәуелсіз Мемлекеттер Достастығы, Ұжымдық қауіпсіздік туралы шарт ұйымы, жақында Еуразиялық экономикалық одақ сияқты Мәскеуге бағдарланған посткеңестік аймақтық инфрақұрылымның бөлігі болып қала берді. Ішкі саяси мәселелердің шиеленісуіне қарамастан, Қытай өз ықпалын тұрақты түрде арттырып, Қазақстанның жалпы саудасының 18 пайызынан астамын және ішкі инвестицияларының жалпы көлемінің бес пайызын қамтамасыз етті, сонымен қатар Шанхай Ынтымақтастық Ұйымына мүше болумен қатар, қауіпсіздік қатынастарын тереңдете түсті[133]. Ұзақ уақыт бойы Президент Назарбаев билігі кезінде Қазақстан Орталық Азиядағы аймақтық көшбасшы рөлін белгілі бір дәрежеде өз мойнына алды, дегенмен соңғы жылдары Өзбекстан президенті Мирзиёев өз елінің оқшаулануын жойды. Соның нәтижесінде халқының саны жағынан ең көп ел (Өзбекстан) мен ең бай ел (Қазақстан) арасындағы аймақтық тепе-теңдік біршама төмендеді.
Сонымен қатар, Қазақстан жоғарыда талқыланғандай Батыспен экономикалық байланыстарын күрт тереңдетті. Еуропалық Одақ Қазақстанның сыртқы саудадағы ірі серіктесі ретінде сыртқы саудасының 30 пайызын құрайды және бұл ел Орталық Азияда бірінші болып 2020 жылы күшіне енген жаңа әріптестік пен ынтымақтастық туралы жаңа келісімді (EPCA) жасады. Еуропалық Одақ институттары адам құқықтары мен басқару мәселелерін өздерінің адам құқығы жөніндегі ресми диалог процестерінің бір бөлігі ретінде көтеруге бейім, дегенмен Еуропалық Парламент EPCA ратификациясына қарамастан бұл мәселелерде жиі белсенділік танытуда[134].
ЕҚЫҰ әрқашан Қазақстанның дипломатиялық бастамаларының маңызды бөлігі болды, мәселен 2010 жылы Қазақстан оған төрағалық етті және осы ұйымның үкімет басшыларының сирек кездесетін саммитін өткізу мүмкіндігін пайдаланды (мұндай шара соңғы рет 1999 жылы өткен, бұл содан кейінгі ЕҚЫҰ саммиті) [135]. Қазақстанның ЕҚЫҰ-ға қатысуын жалғастыру белгісі ретінде бұрынғы сыртқы істер министрі Қайрат Әбдірахманов 2020 жылы желтоқсанда ЕҚЫҰ-ның Аз ұлттар ісі жөніндегі Жоғарғы комиссары болды. Жоғарыда атап өткеніміздей, әлемдік және дәстүрлі діндер және «Астана процесі» аясында 2017 жылдан бері Қазақстанда Сирия дағдарысы бойынша бейбіт келіссөздер жүргізілуде.
Қазақстанның халықаралық қатынастардың кең базасымен жақсы байланысы бар салыстырмалы түрде дамыған мемлекет ретіндегі позициясы оның адам құқықтары траекториясына халықаралық әсер етудің белгілі бір ауқымы бар екенін білдіреді, бірақ оны асыра бағалауға болмайды. Оның билік басындағылары, әсіресе, бірқатар жас шенеуніктер мен көшбасшылары Қазақстанның беделі туралы ойлады және оны жақсы серіктес, қазіргі заманға сай ел ретінде халықаралық деңгейде таныту үшін көп еңбек етті. Қазақстан шетелдік инвестициялар мен қаржылық қолдауды алуға ынталы болып қала береді, әсіресе әлем қазба отыныннан бас тарту кезеңінде. Алайда, бұл пікірлер, әсіресе, мемлекеттің жоғары эшелоны мен қауіпсіздік аппаратында саяси және экономикалық кво-статусын сақтауға деген ұмтылыстан асып түсетіні белгісіз.
Image by Jussi Toivanen under (CC).
[1] Francisco Olmos, State-building myths in Central Asia, Foreign Policy Centre, October 2019, https://fpc.org.uk/state-building-myths-in-central-asia/
[2] Wudan Yan, The nuclear sins of the Soviet Union live on in Kazakhstan, Nature, April 2019, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01034-8
[3] Institute of Demography named after A.G. Vishnevsk National Research University Higher School of Economics, 1989 All-Union Population Census National composition of the population in the republics of the USSR: Kazakh SSR, http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=5
[4] Alimana Zhanmukanova, Is Northern Kazakhstan at Risk to Russia?, The Diplomat, April 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/is-northern-kazakhstan-at-risk-to-russia/; RFE/RL, A Tale Of Russian Separatism In Kazakhstan, August 2014, https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-kazakhstan-russian-separatism/25479571.html
[5] CIA World Factbook, Kazakhstan, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/#people-and-society
[6] Alimana Zhanmukanova, Is Northern Kazakhstan at Risk to Russia?, The Diplomat, April 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/is-northern-kazakhstan-at-risk-to-russia/
[7] The World Bank, GDP growth (annual per cent) – Kazakhstan, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=KZ
[8] IEA, Kazakhstan energy profile, April 2020, https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan-energy-profile
[9] Maurizio Totaro, Collecting beetles in Zhanaozen: Kazakhstan’s hidden tragedy, openDemocracy, May 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/yrysbek-dabei-zhanaozen-kazakhstans-hidden-tragedy/
[10] Abdujalil Abdurasulov, Kazakhstan's land reform protests explained, April 2016, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-36163103
[11] UN Human Rights, “Kazakhstan should release rights defenders Bokayev and Ayan” – UN experts, December 2016, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20990&LangID=E; Sarah McCloskey, Why Kazakh political prisoner Max Bokayev should be released, openDemocracy, April 2019, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/why-kazakh-political-prisoner-max-bokayev-should-be-released/
[12] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Cracks Down on Weekend Protests, The Diplomat, May 2016 https://thediplomat.com/2016/05/kazakhstan-cracks-down-on-weekend-protests/; Eurasianet, Kazakhstan Takes Autocratic Turn With Mass Detentions, May 2016, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-takes-autocratic-turn-mass-detentions
[13] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Bans Sale of Agricultural Lands to Foreigners, The Diplomat, May 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/05/kazakhstan-bans-sale-of-agricultural-lands-to-foreigners/
[14] David Trilling, China’s water use threatens Kazakhstan’s other big lake, Eurasianet, March 2021, https://www.intellinews.com/china-s-water-use-threatens-kazakhstan-s-other-big-lake-207026/
[15] The move also came 30 years after his elevation to become First Secretary of the Communist party.
[16] Paolo Sorbello, Kazakhstan celebrates its leader with two more statues, Global Voices, July 2021, https://globalvoices.org/2021/07/06/kazakhstan-celebrates-its-leader-with-two-more-statues/; Andrew Roth, Oliver Stone derided for film about ‘modest’ former Kazakh president, The Guardian, July 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/11/oliver-stone-film-ex-kazakhstan-president-nursultan-nazabayev; Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan’s golden man gets the Oliver Stone treatment, Eurasianet, July 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-golden-man-gets-the-oliver-stone-treatment
[17] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Remains Nazarbayev’s State, The Diplomat, October 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/10/kazakhstan-remains-nazarbayevs-state/
[18] Global Monitoring, COVID-19 pandemic – Kazakhstan, https://global-monitoring.com/gm/page/events/epidemic-0001994.sOJcVU487awH.html?lang=en
[19] World Health Organisation, COVID-19 Kazakhstan, https://covid19.who.int/region/euro/country/kz
[20] Qazaqstan TV News, Doctors of the capital showed the situation inside the hospital, July 2021, https://qazaqstan.tv/news/143209/
[21] William Tompson Twitter post, Twitter, April 2021, https://twitter.com/william_tompson/status/1385102759117180931?s=20; Dmitriy Mazorenko, Dariya Zheniskhan and Almas Kaisar, Kazakhstan is caught in a vicious cycle of debt. The pandemic has only made it worse, openDemocracy, June 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/kazakhstan-caught-vicious-cycle-debt-pandemic-has-only-made-it-worse/
[22] Bagdat Asylbek, Diagnosis: "devastation". Kazakhstani health care and pandemic, Radio Azattyq, August 2020, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-coronavirus-national-health-system/30768857.html; Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Former health minister arrested, Eurasianet, November 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-former-health-minister-arrested
[23] Bakhytzhan Toregozhina, Pandemic and Human Rights: Only Repressive System is Functioning in Kazakhstan, Cabar Central Asia, July 2020, https://cabar.asia/en/pandemic-and-human-rights-only-repressive-system-is-functioning-in-kazakhstan?pdf=36177. Though Kazakhstan already had laws in place against ‘disinformation’ that were able to be used.
[24] Madina Aimbetova, Freedom of expression in Kazakhstan still a distant prospect, says prosecuted activist, Global Voices, July 2020, https://globalvoices.org/2020/07/15/freedom-of-expression-in-kazakhstan-still-a-distant-prospect-says-jailed-activist/
[25] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expression during Covid-19; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html;
Asim Kashgarian, Rights Groups: Kazakh Authorities Use Coronavirus to Smother Political Dissent, VOA News, November 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/rights-groups-kazakh-authorities-use-coronavirus-smother-political-dissent
[26] Jeff Bell, Twitter post, Twitter, January 2021, https://twitter.com/ImJeffBell/status/1347934173433106435?s=20
[27] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Authorities use pandemic to quash protests, Eurasianet, March 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-authorities-use-pandemic-to-quash-protests
[28] DW, Kazakhstan abolishes death penalty, January 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty/a-56117176
[29] Radio Azattyk, Direct elections of rural akims: the campaign has not started yet, but obstacles are already being raised, May 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31240547.html
[30]OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Parliamentary Elections, January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850
[31] OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Parliamentary Elections, January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850
[32] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Civil society complains of pre-election pressure, Eurasianet, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-civil-society-complains-of-pre-election-pressure
[33] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Nervous authorities keep election observers at arm’s length, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nervous-authorities-keep-election-observers-at-arms-length
[34] The Economist, All the parties in Kazakhstan’s election support the government, January 2021, https://www.economist.com/asia/2021/01/09/all-the-parties-in-kazakhstans-election-support-the-government
[35] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Nervous authorities keep election observers at arm’s length, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nervous-authorities-keep-election-observers-at-arms-length
[36] RFE/RL, Kazakh Opposition Figure Calls On Supporters To Vote To Expose 'Opposition' Party, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-opposition-figure-calls-on-supporters-to-vote-to-expose-opposition-party/30956477.html
[37] For a good summation of the history of the history of this case see the chapter in Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Hogan Lovells, Hogan Lovells Secures Major High Court Victory for BTA Bank in US $6bn Fraud Case, August 2018, https://www.hoganlovells.com/en/news/hogan-lovells-secures-major-high-court-victory-for-bta-bank-in-us-6bn-fraud-case
[40] Rupert Neate, Arrest warrant for Kazakh billionaire accused of one of world's biggest frauds, The Guardian, February 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/feb/16/arrest-warrant-kazakh-billionaire-mukhtar-ablyazov
[41] RFE/RL Kazakh Servicem Italian Officials Imprisoned Over 'Unlawful' Deportation Of Former Kazakh Banker's Wife, Daughter, October 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/30895138.html
[42] Dmitry Solovyov and Robin Paxton, Kazakhstan in move to ban opposition parties and media, Reuters, November 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-kazakhstan-opposition-idUKBRE8AK0SE20121121; Human Rights House, Kazakhstan opposition leader sentenced in politically motivated trial, October 2012, https://humanrightshouse.org/articles/kazakhstan-opposition-leader-sentenced-in-politically-motivated-trial/
[43] Vladimir Kozlov, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Vladimir_Kozlov_(politician)#
[44] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan is throttling the internet when the president’s rival is online, Eurasianet, July 2018, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-is-throttling-the-internet-when-the-presidents-rival-is-online
[45] Manshuk Asautay, Activists demanded the removal of the "Street Party" from the list of banned organisations, Radio Azattyq, https://www.azattyq.org/a/31318167.htm;l RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Kazakh Activists Start Hunger Strike To Protest Opposition Party Ban, June 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-hunger-strike-koshe-party/31318852.html
[46] RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Hundreds Rally In Kazakhstan To Protest Growing Chinese Influence, March 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-almaty-anti-china-rally-arrests/31172559.html; Joanna Lillis, Nazarbayev ally wins big in Kazakhstan election after hundreds arrested, The Guardian, June 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds-arrested-as-kazakhs-protest-against-rigged-election; See footage here via Maxim Eristavi’s Twitter feed: https://twitter.com/MaximEristavi/status/1348182003351511042?s=20
[47] Andrey Grishin, When Kazakhstan Will Stop Making “Extremists” of Ordinary People? CABAR Central Asia, March 2020, https://cabar.asia/en/when-kazakhstan-will-stop-making-extremists-of-ordinary-people; Legislationline, Criminal codes – Kazakhstan, https://www.legislationline.org/documents/section/criminal-codes/country/21/Kazakhstan/show; Article 405 of the Criminal Code states - ‘Organisation and participation in activity of public or religious association or other organisation after court decision on prohibition of their activity or liquidation in connection with carrying out by them the extremism or terrorism’; Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Crackdown on Government Critics, July 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/07/kazakhstan-crackdown-government-critics; From Our Member Dignity – Kadyr-kassiyet (KK) from Kazakhstan and Bir Duino from Kyrgyzstan – Anti-Extremist Policies in Russia, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan. Comparative Review, Forum-Asia, April 2020 https://www.forum-asia.org/?p=31521
[48] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Crackdown on Government Critics, July 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/07/kazakhstan-crackdown-government-critics; European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html
[49] For example both groups chose to protest on Capital day this year, despite meeting at different times both were swept up in the same rounds of ‘preventative’ arrests. See Joanna Lillis, Twitter post, Twitter, July 2021, https://twitter.com/joannalillis/status/1412272738547421187?s=20
[50] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Journalist Convicted Of Money Laundering, Walks Free In ‘Huge Victory’, September 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-journalist-mamai-convicted-money-laundering-ablyazov/28721897.html
[51] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Activist Demands Registration Of Party Before Parliamentary Vote, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-demands-registration-of-party-before-parliamentary-vote/30942877.html; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Opposition Group Allowed To Hold Rally Challenging Upcoming Polls, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-opposition-group-allowed-to-hold-rally-challenging-upcoming-polls/30933581.html; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Twitter post, Twitter, November 2020, https://twitter.com/RFERL/status/1327704146221412352
[52] Bruce Pannier, Hectic Times in Kazakhstan Recently, And For The Foreseeable Future, RFE/RL, June 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/hectic-times-in-kazakhstan-recently-and-for-the-foreseeable-future/30000862.html
[53] Colleen Wood, New Civic Movement Urges Kazakhstan to ‘Wake Up’, The Diplomat, June 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/new-civic-movement-urges-kazakhstan-to-wake-up/
[54] Medet Yesimkhanov, Pavel Bannikov and Asem Zhapisheva, Dossier: Who is behind lobbying for the abolitions of laws and the spread of conspiracy theories in Kazakhstan, Factcheck.kz, February 2021, https://factcheck.kz/socium/dose-kto-stoit-za-lobbirovaniem-otmeny-zakonov-i-rasprostraneniem-konspirologii-v-kazaxstane/; Medet Yesimkhanov, Dossier: CitizenGO – an ultra-conservative lobby disguised as a petition site, Factcheck.kz, November 2020, https://factcheck.kz/v-mire/dose-citizengo-ultrakonservativnoe-lobbi-pod-vidom-ploshhadki-dlya-peticij/
[55] Mihra Rittmann, Kazakhstan’s ‘Reformed’ Protest Law Hardly an Improvement, Human Rights Watch, May 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/28/kazakhstans-reformed-protest-law-hardly-improvement
[56] Legislation Online, On the procedure for organising and holding peaceful assemblies in the Republic of
Kazakhstan, May 2020, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8924/file/Kazakhstan%20-%20Peaceful%20assemblies%20EN.pdf
[57] Mihra Rittmann, Kazakhstan’s ‘Reformed’ Protest Law Hardly an Improvement, Human Rights Watch, May 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/28/kazakhstans-reformed-protest-law-hardly-improvement
[58] Human Rights Council, Rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, United Nations General Assembly, May 2019, https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/41/41
[59] Indymedia UK, A brief history of “kettling”, November 2010, https://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2010/11/468945.html As described by the OSCE, kettling (or corralling) is a ‘strategy of crowd control that relies on containment […], where law enforcement officials encircle and enclose a section of assembly participants.’
[60] Paul Lewis, Human rights court backs police ‘kettling’, The Guardian, March 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/mar/15/human-rights-court-police-kettling
[61] Freedom House, Countries and Territories, https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores?sort=desc&order=Total%20Score%20and%20Status
[62] Front Line Defenders, Authorities pressurize human rights groups – Kazakhstan, December 2020, https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/ru/statement-report/human-rights-groups-under-pressure-kazakhstan?fbclid=IwAR2g_4jdv1OeFfSHHc92lmuVz11RnJxNYdFbl2FqEggOm8gpRlnH7A-_vjg; ACCA, Kazakhstan may suspend the activities of the International Journalism Center, January 2021, https://acca.media/en/kazakhstan-may-suspend-the-activities-of-the-international-journalism-center/; Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Government’s war on NGOs claims more victims, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-governments-war-on-ngos-claims-more-victims
[63] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Authorities Drop Changes Against NGOs After Outcry, February 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-authorities-drop-charges-ngos-outcry/31087863.html; Bagdat Asylbek, Human Rights Bureau and NGO Echo won lawsuits against tax service, Radio Azattyq, April 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31190073.html
[64] OMCT, Harassment on the part of the Kazakh tax authorities against human rights NGOs international legal initiative, June 2021, https://www.omct.org/en/resources/urgent-interventions/harassment-on-the-part-of-the-kazakh-tax-authorities-against-human-rights-ngo-international-legal-initiative; Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Rights Groups Harassed, February 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/02/22/kazakhstan-rights-groups-harassed
[65] ICNL, Kazakhstan, May 2021, https://www.icnl.org/resources/civic-freedom-monitor/kazakhstan
[66] Government of Kazakhstan, President Tokayev Signs a Decree on Further Measures of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the Field of Human Rights, June 2021, https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/mfa-delhi/press/news/details/215657?lang=kk
[67] ACCA, Expert: there are no political prisoners in Kazakhstan, but they are, July 2021, https://acca.media/en/expert-there-are-no-political-prisoners-in-kazakhstan-but-they-are/
[68] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Jailed Kazakh Political Prisoner In Solitary After Slitting Wrists, Rights Group Says, RFE/RL, April 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/jailed-kazakh-political-prisoner-in-solitary-after-slitting-wrists-rights-group-says/31193040.html; EU in Kazakhstan, Twitter post, Twitter, April 2021, https://twitter.com/EUinKazakhstan/status/1380141287760859141; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Jailed Opposition Activist Unexpectedly Granted Early Release, July 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-abishev-release/31359606.html
[69] U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan, https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/kazakhstan/; Chris Rickleton, Kazakhstan: Activist dies in detention, piling pressure on the authorities, Eurasianet, February 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-activist-dies-in-detention-piling-pressure-on-the-authorities
[70] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Writers Urge President To Release Dissident Poet Atabek, RFE/RL, February 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-writers-urge-president-to-release-dissident-poet-atabek/31121177.html; English PEN, Kazakhstan: take action for imprisoned poet Aron Atabek, https://www.englishpen.org/posts/campaigns/kazakhstan-take-action-for-imprisoned-poet-aron-atabek/
[71] European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html
[72] Kazakhstan International Bureau for Human Rights and Rule of Law, Dostiyarov was reportedly beaten, July 2021, https://bureau.kz/kk/ysty%d2%9b/belsendi-dostiyarovtyng-soqqygha-zhyghylghany-habarlandy/
[73] ACCA, Expert: people are deprived of civil and political rights in Kazakhstan, May 2021, https://acca.media/en/expert-people-are-deprived-of-civil-and-political-rights-in-kazakhstan/
[74] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expressions during COVID-19; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html; IPHR, Kazakhstan: Free civil rights defender Asya Tulesova, June 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-free-civil-rights-defender-asya-tulesova.html; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Court Convicts Activist Charged With Assaulting Police, August 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-court-convicts-activist-charged-with-assaulting-police/30779401.html
IPHR, Kazakhstan: Free civil rights defender Asya Tulesova, June 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-free-civil-rights-defender-asya-tulesova.html
[75] RFE/RL, Kazakh Activist Receives Sentence For Links With Banned Political Group, December 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/another-kazakh-activist-receives-parole-like-sentence-for-links-with-banned-political-group/31015204.html
[76] Asemgul Mukhitovna, A resident of Makanchi died at the police station. A case was initiated under the article “Torture”, Radio Azattyq, October 2020, https://www.azattyq.org/a/30900922.html
[77] U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan, https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/kazakhstan/; Human Rights Commissioner in the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/ombudsman/activities/1030?lang=en
[78] See State Department Ibid and ACCA, Kazakhstan: tired of bullying, convict threatens to hang himself, March 2021, https://acca.media/en/kazakhstan-tired-of-bullying-convict-threatens-to-hang-himself/
[79] Duke University, Kazakhstan Rule of Law project, January 2020, https://researchfunding.duke.edu/kazakhstan-rule-law-project
[80] Saniyash Toyken, A group of people who demanded a meeting with Asanov spent the night in the building of the Supreme Court, Radio Azattyq, June 2021, https://www.azattyq.org/a/31310280.html
[81] Court, An Introduction, https://court.aifc.kz/an-introduction/
[82] Christian Schaich and Christian Reitemeier, The Republic of Kazakhstan’s New Administrative Procedures Code, ZOIS, June 2021, https://en.zois-berlin.de/publications/the-republic-of-kazakhstans-new-administrative-procedures-code; Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Administrative Procedural and Procedural Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, (with changes as of 01.07.2021), https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=35132264#pos=1;-13
[83] Mehmet Volkan Kasikci, Documenting the Tragedy in Xinjiang: An Insider’s View of Atajurt, The Diplomat, January 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/documenting-the-tragedy-in-xinjiang-an-insiders-view-of-atajurt/
[84] Reid Standish, Astana Tried to Silence China Critics, Foreign Policy, March 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/11/uighur-china-kazakhstan-astana/
[85] Agence France-Presse, Xinjiang activist freed in Kazakh court after agreeing to stop campaigning, The Guardian, August 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/17/xinjiang-activist-freed-in-kazakh-court-after-agreeing-to-stop-campaigning; Freedom Now, Kazakhstan: UN Declares Detention of Human Rights Activist Serikzhan Bilash a Violation of International Law, November 2020, https://www.freedom-now.org/kazakhstan-un-declares-detention-of-human-rights-activist-serikzhan-bilash-a-violation-of-international-law/
[86] Bruce Pannier, Activist Defending Ethnic Kazakhs In China Explains Why He Had To Flee Kazakhstan, RFE/RL, January 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/31051495.html
[87] Reid Standish and Aigerim Toleukhanova, Kazakh Activism Against China's Internment Camps Is Broken, But Not Dead, April 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-protests-china-xinjiang-rights-abuses/31186209.html
[88] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan’s Dugan community stunned by spasm of deadly bloodletting, February 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-dungan-community-stunned-by-spasm-of-deadly-bloodletting; Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Trial over deadly ethnic violence leaves bitter taste for Dungans, Eurasianet, April 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-trial-over-deadly-ethnic-violence-leaves-bitter-taste-for-dungans
[89] ITUC CSI IGN, Kazakhstan: Statement of the ITUC Pan-European Regional Council, April 2017, https://www.ituc-csi.org/kazakhstan-statement-of-the-ituc; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Hunger Strike Protests By Oil Workers Growing In Western Kazakhstan, January 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-oil-workers-hunger-strike/28241775.html
[90] ITUC CSI IGN, List of affiliated organisations, November 2019, https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/list_of_affiliates_nov_2019.pdf
[91] IndustriALL Global Union, IndustriALL calls for release of Kazakh trade union leader, July 2019, http://www.industriall-union.org/industriall-calls-for-release-of-kazakh-trade-union-leader
[92] IndustriALL Global Union, Kazakh union leader Erlan Baltabay released, March 2020, http://www.industriall-union.org/kazakh-union-leader-erlan-baltabay-released
[93] Human Rights Council, Advance Unedited Version, Freedom Now, May 2021, https://www.freedom-now.org/wp-content/uploads/AUV_WGAD-Opinion_2021-5-KAZ.pdf; Freedom Now, Kazakhstan: Freedom Now Condemns Treatment of Imprisoned Labour Activist, July 2021,https://www.freedom-now.org/kazakhstan-freedom-now-condemns-treatment-of-imprisoned-labor-activist/
[94] Mihra Rittman, Kazakhstan Adopts Long-Promised Amendments to Trade Union Law, Human Rights Watch, December 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/17/kazakhstan-adopts-long-promised-amendments-trade-union-law
[95] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Independent Union Under Threat of Suspension, January 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/01/28/kazakhstan-independent-union-under-threat-suspension
[96] International Labour Conference, Committee on the Application of Standards, July 2021, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_804447.pdf
[97] Radio Azattyk, In Almaty, Glovo couriers who went on strike tried to block the street, July 2021, https://rus.azattyk.org/a/v-almaty-obyavivshie-zabastovku-kurery-glovo-popytalis-perekryt-ulitsu/31345823.html
[98] RSF, 2021 World Press Freedom Index, https://rsf.org/en/ranking#
[99] Sher Khashimov and Raushan Zhandayeva, Kazakhstan’s Alternative Media Is Thriving—and in Danger, Foreign Policy, July 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/07/12/kazakhstan-alternative-media-thriving-danger/
[100] Ibid.
[101] RSF, Regional newspaper editor harassed after investigating real estate scandal, February 2021, https://rsf.org/en/news/regional-newspaper-editor-harassed-after-investigating-real-estate-scandal
[102] Order of the Minister of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated June 21, 2013 No. 138, https://online.zakon.kz/m/document/?doc_id=31431046#sub_id=100
CPJ, Kazakhstan adopts new accreditation requirements that journalists fear will promote censorship, March 2021, https://cpj.org/2021/03/kazakhstan-adopts-new-accreditation-requirements-that-journalists-fear-will-promote-censorship/
[103] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expression during COVID-19,; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html
[104] Paolo Sorbello, Kazakhstan Decriminalizes Defamation, Keeps Hindering Free Media, June 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/kazakhstan-decriminalizes-defamation-keeps-hindering-free-media/; Legislationline, Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, July 2014, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8260/file/Kazakhstan_CC_2014_2016_en.pdf
[105] Mike Eckel and Sarah Alikhan, Big Houses, Deep Pockets, RFE/RL, December 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-family-wealth/31013097.html?fbclid=IwAR38vC-WSkYBgPMTm--5XVsTgP5c3oesqt7eomZmsfeUiOjahO5QThDmcGU
[106] RFE/RL, After Seven Years, ‘Kazakhgate’ Scandal Ends With Minor Indictment, August 2010, https://www.rferl.org/a/After_Seven_Years_Kazakhgate_Scandal_Ends_With_Minor_Indictment_/2123800.html; Steve LeVine, Was James Giffen telling the truth?, Foreign Policy, November 2010, https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/11/19/was-james-giffen-telling-the-truth/
[107] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev-linked billionaire sucked into UK court battle, Eurasianet, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/international-criticism-of-duvanov-conviction-mounts-against-kazakhstan. See also Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018.
[108] https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-linked-billionaire-sucked-into-uk-court-battle
[109] https://forbes.kz/ranking/50_bogateyshih_biznesmenov_kazahstana_-_2020
[110] Robert Booth, Prince Andrew tried to broker crown property deal for Kazakh oligarch, The Guardian, July 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jul/03/prince-andrew-broker-crown-property-kazakh-oligarch; Ian Gallagher, Kazakh-born socialite ‘Lady Goga’ who partied with her ‘very, very close friend’ Prince Andrew at her 30th birthday reveals she leads a far quieter life after turning 40, Mail Online, March 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8113173/The-quiet-life-Lady-Goga.html
[111] Financial Times, The secret scheme to skim millions off central Asia’s pipeline megaproject, December 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/80f25f82-5f21-4a56-b2bb-7a48e61dd9c6; Eurasianet, Financial Times: Kazakh leader’s son-in-law skimmed millions from Chinese loads, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/financial-times-kazakh-leaders-son-in-law-skimmed-millions-from-chinese-loans
[112] See: Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018.
[113] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Rakhatgate Saga Over as Former Son-in-Law Found Hanged, Eurasianet, February 2015, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-rakhatgate-saga-over-as-former-son-in-law-found-hanged
[114]BBC News, Kazakh family win Unexplained Wealth Order battle over London homes, April 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-52216011
[115] Sumaira FH, Nazarbayev’s Daughter Secured Seat In Kazakh Parliament On Ruling Party’s Ticket, Urdu Point, January 2021, https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/nazarbayevs-daughter-secured-seat-in-kazakh-1138712.html
[116] Department for International Trade, Trade & Investment Factsheets, Kazakhstan, UK Gov, July 2021, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/998607/kazakhstan-trade-and-investment-factsheet-2021-07-07.pdf
[117] Ron Synovitz and Manas Kaiyrtayuly, How Top Officials, Relatives Scooped Up Kazakhstan’s Higher – Education Sector, RFE/RL, June 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-universities/31326535.html
[118] Pew Research Center, Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050, https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/
[119] Legislationline, The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8207/file/Kazakhstan_Constitution_1995_am_2017_en.pdf
[120] Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions, http://religions-congress.org/
[121] United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Annual Reports, https://www.uscirf.gov/annual-reports
[122] Legislationline, The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan of October 11, 2011, No 483-IV, On Religious Activity and Religious Associations, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/4091/file/Kazakhstan_Law_religious_freedoms_organisations_2011_en.pdf
[123] Felix Corley, Kazakhstan: 134 administrative prosecutions in 2020, Forum 18, February 2021, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2634
[124] Zhanagul Zhursin and Farangis Najibullah, The Hijab Debate Intensifies As School Starts In Kazakhstan, RFE/RL, September 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/the-hijab-debate-intensifies-as-school-starts-in-kazakhstan/30148088.html
[125] OSCE, Kazakhstan - Parliamentary Elections, 10 January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850
[126] Amina Chaya, What’s wrong with the domestic violence law in Kazakhstan? Part two, Masa Media, November 2020, https://masa.media/ru/site/chto-netak-szakonom-obytovom-nasilii-vkazakhstane-chast-vtoraya
[127] Evgeniya Mikhailidi, Alina Zhartieva, Nazerke Kurmangazinova, Victorious Violence, Vlast, February 2021, https://vlast.kz/obsshestvo/43869-pobedivsee-nasilie.html
[128] Kazinform, Domestic and domestic violence: MPs and experts talked about the new law, October 2020, https://www.inform.kz/ru/semeyno-bytovoe-nasilie-deputaty-i-eksperty-rasskazali-o-novom-zakone_a3710389
[129] Malika Autalipova and Timur Nusimbekov, The Largest Women’s March in the History of Kazakhstan, Adamar, March 2021, https://adamdar.ca/en/post/the-largest-women-s-march-in-the-history-of-kazakhstan; Asylkhan Mamashevich, National values, LGBT rights and “justification before the European Parliament”. How did the society evaluate the women’s march?, Radio Azattyq, March 2021, https://www.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-gender-equality-different-opinions/31142716.html
[130] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Feminist Group Denied Registration, September 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/13/kazakhstan-feminist-group-denied-registration; Mihra Rittmann, Activists Detained in Kazakhstan ‘For Their Own Safety’, Human Rights Watch, June 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/06/01/activists-detained-kazakhstan-their-own-safety
[131] The Constitution contains Article 14. 2 which promises ‘No one shall be subject to any discrimination for reasons of origin, social, property status, occupation, sex, race, nationality, language, attitude towards religion, convictions, place of residence or any other circumstances’. See The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legislationonline, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8207/file/Kazakhstan_Constitution_1995_am_2017_en.pdf; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Sexual Minorities In Kazakhstan Hide Who They Are To Avoid Abuse, June 2021 https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-lgbt-hide-from-abuse/31316186.html
[132] Draft Law ‘On protection of children from information harming their health and development’, 2015; Ministry of Information and Communication of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Instruction ‘On Classification of Informational Products’ and ‘Methodology of Defining Informational Products for Children (Not) Harming Their Health and Development’, 2018.
[133] Zhanna Shayakhmetova, Positive Dynamics Observed in Trade Between Kazakhstan and China, The Astana Times, April 2021, https://astanatimes.com/2021/04/positive-dynamics-observed-in-trade-between-kazakhstan-and-china/
[134] Ayia Reno, “You need to have not only beautiful reform packages.” EU special envoy on relations with Kazakhstan, Radio Azattyq, January 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-eu-relations-peter-burian-special-representative-central-asia/31029755.html; European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html
[135] OSCE, Summits, https://www.osce.org/summits
[post_title] => Кіріспе: Қазақстандағы адам құқықтарына қысым көрсету туралы зерттеу
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[post_content] => Қазақстан тәуелсіздігінің 30 жылдық мерейтойы қарсаңында жарияланып отырған бұл басылым елдің өз тарихында маңызды бетбұрыс кезеңінде тұрғанын көрсетті. Қазақстанда тұңғыш Президент Н.Назарбаев билігінің біртіндеп Президент Тоқаевқа өтуі және халықтың басым көпшілігінде өмір сүру деңгейінің төмендеуі себебінен әлеуметтік наразылықтардың артуына байланысты, сонымен қоса, қазба байлықтарды пайдаланудан ғаламдық бас тарту болашаққа деген сенімді азайтқан тұста, ел экономикасының болашағы кідіруге және ойлануға итермелейді.
Соңғы 30 жыл ішінде Қазақстандағы билік өкілдері қол жеткізген қарқынды экономикалық даму негізінен биліктің пайдасына және елдегі түрлі этникалық топтар арасындағы тұрақтылықты сақтауға қызмет етті. Шын мәнінде, бұның барлығы саяси тәуелсіздік пен көптеген азаматтардың бас бостандығы есебінен жүргізілді. Үкімет пен оның жақтастары бұрынғысынша Қазақстанның демократияға бет бұруы мен елдегі саяси мәдениетті «дамытуға» біртіндеп қадам жасау арқылы қол жеткізуге болады деп есептесе, оларды сынаушылар соңғы 30 жылда саяси жүйеде ешбір өзгерістің болмағанын айтады. Елдегі реформалар халықтың өмір сүру деңгейі мен мемлекеттік қызмет көрсетуді жақсартқанымен, саяси күш элитадан азаматтық қоғамға ауысқан жоқ. Мәселен, Қазақстандағы жалғыз саяси таңдау - Тоқаевтың президенттік таққа отыруын билік басындағылар жасады.
Президент Тоқаев «Халық үніне құлақ асатын мемлекет» құруға және еркіндік пен Үкіметтің жауапкершілігін арттыратын реформалар жүргізуге уәде берді, алайда қазірше бұл саладағы өзгерістер шектеулі сипатқа ие болды. Президент Тоқаевтың ұстанымы негізінен қазіргі авторитарлық билік құрылымдарын сақтай отырып, мемлекеттің ықпалдылығы мен нәтижелерін жақсартатын «демократиясыз модернизация» немесе «жүйе ішіндегі реформалар» жолын жалғастыру сипатына ие..
Халықтың басым бөлігі осы уақытқа дейін тұрақсыздық пен қуғын-сүргін арасындағы келісімді қабылдауға келіскенімен (кей кездері еріксіз), соңғы кездері болған наразылықтар болашақта мұндай жағдайды кездейсоқ қабылдауға болмайтынын көрсетті. Қазақстанның мұнай мен газ байлығының болашағына жағымсыз болжамдар қоғамдағы теңсіздікті одан әрі ушықтыруы және қазіргі жүйенің клептократиялық сипатына наразылық артуы мүмкін.[1]
Сонымен, Қазақстанда нақты өзгерістерді жасау жолдарын зерттегенде, жергілікті белсенділер екі негізгі жолды ұстанады. Коллин Вуд эссесінде айтылғандай: «Кейбіреулер билікті тәрбиелеу мен мемлекеттік органдармен ынтымақтастық орнату арқылы біртіндеп жүзеге асатын реформаға сенеді. Бұған заң бұзушылықтарды мұқият бақылау және оларды түзету үшін тиісті заңды қолдану кіреді; Ол саяси партияны тіркеу үшін қажетті барлық кедергілерден өтуді, үгіт-насихат жүргізуді және өзіне қажет орынды алуды қамтиды. Екіншілері, біртіндеп реформалауға қарағанда, Қазақстанның басқару жүйесін суперпрезиденттіктен парламенттік жүйеге өзгерту сияқты ауқымды өзгерістер жасауды дұрыс деп санайды. Олар үкіметтің жұмыс топтары мен комитеттеріне наразылық білдірудің қажетті процесін айналып өтуді ақтау үшін олардың конституциямен қорғалатын бейбіт шерулерге құқығын көрсете отырып, тікелей әрекет ету мен көшедегі наразылық шараларын таңдайды. Бұл идеологиялық және тактикалық плюрализм «тиімді» болмауы мүмкін, бірақ барлығының саясатқа қатысу құқығын қамтамасыз ету үшін Қазақстандағы адам құқықтарының жағдайын жақсартуда маңызды орынға ие».
Халыққа пайдасы тұрғысынан да, жүйенің сипаты жағынан да Қазақстанда түбегейлі өзгерістер енгізу үшін екі тәсілді бірдей қолдану қажет болады. Белсенділердің екі тобына да әр бағыт бойынша жүруді жеңілдету үшін нақты өзгерістерді қолдау үшін жергілікті деңгейде мобилизация және халықаралық қолдау қажет болады.
Президент Тоқаевтың 2021 жылғы маусымдағы «Қазақстандағы адам құқықтары бойынша одан әрі әрекет ету туралы» жарлығы мен алдағы адам құқықтары жөніндегі іс-қимыл жоспары жергілікті және халықаралық серіктестердің ұсыныстарына жауап ретінде үкіметтің ағымдағы бағытын өзгертуге дайындығын бағалау үшін пайдалы негіз болып табылады. Тоқаев Үкіметке негізгі мәселелерді шешу үшін келесі қадамдар жасауға уәде берді:
In human rights challenges that apply both within and beyond the political sphere the need to improve oversight of the police and prison system remain areas of concern. Driving culture change in policing will need reform of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and measures to provide improved oversight through a new independent police complaints body. Another potential option could be devolving certain management functions to local government as part of Tokayev’s gradual election of local Akims, though country-wide oversight mechanisms would need to remain to limit abuses taking place away from the national spotlight. Torture and ill-treatment are still major problems with the case of Azamat Orazaly, killed in police custody after steeling livestock, highlighting the ongoing problems of ill-treatment by the police.[77] The increases in alleged torture cases reported through the Government’s National Preventive Mechanism against Torture (NPM) is an ongoing concern though it may also be a reflection of improved reporting through the mechanism, though punishment of abusers remains rare and often then lenient.[78] The impact of the pandemic has exacerbated long-standing concerns about harsh and unsanitary prison conditions and aggressive treatment by prison officers.[79] As in many countries of the region the Government’s Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman, whose duties include running the NPM, would benefit from greater capacity, increased powers to hold other arms of the state accountable and greater independence from the political system. Kazakhstan has shares a number of challenges with its many of its neighbours in that the rule of law is impinged by both overly powerful and unaccountable prosecutors office (as Aina Shormanbayeva and Amangeldy Shormanbayev note in their essay) and a judiciary that lacks independence from the state and politically connected interests, despite years of internationally backed reform programmes designed to improve their performance. USAID describes the situation as ‘while well-trained and qualified judges can be found in Kazakhstan, the judicial system overall continues to suffer from (i) lack of independence of the courts, (ii) insufficient training of judges, leading to questionable decisions, (iii) a perception of bias against foreigners in disputes with the state, and (iv) corruption.’[80] As with other parts of the state the personal dimension matters greatly, with protestors able to get reviews of their family member’s cases (for non-political offenses) through the use of single person pickets and other attention raising efforts.[81] In a recognition of some of the challenges the legal system faces, businesses in Nur-Sultan’s financial centre can circumvent the domestic legal system entirely by using an English language Common Law based system headed by 88 year old former UK Chief Justice Lord Woolf and other UK legal luminaries.[82] Some hopes for gradual improvements in the situation, particularly in non-political cases, have been vested in the implementation in July 2021 of the new Administrative Procedures Code that consolidates the country’s administrative law (including civil procedure) in one place for the first time, produced under guidance from the German Government through its Development agency GIZ and the German Foundation for International Legal Cooperation (IRZ).[83] There have also been rumours that the new head of the Supreme Court is keen to see judges act more independently but there is a long way to go before such claims are proved in practice. When it comes to emerging human rights challenges Anna Gussarova’s essay in this collection highlights concerns about both the capacity of the state and its intentions when it comes to protecting the vast quantities of new personal data that have been created by the shift to digital. In response Gussarova argues the case for new laws, improved training for officials and law enforcement and greater transparency to avoid the COVID period ushering in a more intrusive surveillance state on the Chinese model. Issues relating to China’s role in Kazakhstan’s economy and its perceived strategic threat have been a significant political and social mobilising force that triggered a harsh reaction from the Government of Kazakhstan, as noted above. However, these domestically focused China issues are not the only area where the subject of China has led to a local crackdown. The persecution of the 1.5 million ethnic Kazakhs in the Xinjiang region (as well as the Uyghurs) has been a running source of political tension, with local families having relatives in the China. Protest movements swelled in 2018 on this issue and the organisation Atajurt Eriktileri (Homeland Volunteers) became a key NGO involved in the global documentation efforts following the situation in Xinjiang.[84] The Government of Kazakhstan was caught between appeasing local sentiment and heavy pressure from Beijing whose economic and political influence had been growing (and growing angered by the anti-Chinese sentiment on several fronts). In 2018 2,500 ethnic Kazakhs were allowed to leave China for Kazakhstan as a small gesture aimed at mollifying the situation. In March 2019 however Kazakhstani officials raided the offices of Atajurt and arrested its founder Serikzhan Bilash, an ethnic Kazakh born in China, on the grounds that his criticism of the Chinese Government amounted to inciting ethnic tensions.[85] Bilash was forced to accept a ‘freedom freedom’ order agreeing to cease his activism to avoid a seven year jail term, despite the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention declaring that his prosecution breached international human rights law and criticised the Article 174 of the Criminal Code (on incitement to social, national, generic, racial, class or religious discord) as being overly broad and lacking legal certainty.[86] Faced with being unable to continue his work in Kazakhstan amid pressure both from the state, through new criminal cases, and people trying to take over his YouTube channel he fled to Turkey in the summer of 2020 and then on to the United States.[87] Activism on the ground in Kazakhstan on this issue is now more muted, though small groups of women continue to protest outside the Chinese consulate in Almaty, as the police are pre-emptively targeting other activists such as Baibolat Kunbolat (who leads an unregistered successor group to Bilash’s Atajurt) who continue to attempt protests to free their loved ones in China.[88] Questions of ethnic tension do not only relate to China or Russia but a bloody outburst of violence, spiralling from a traffic incident, in February 2020 highlighted tensions between local ethnic Kazakhs and members of the small Dungan minority group. The violence left nine Dungan’s and one Kazakh dead, many more people injured and many homes and businesses in the Dungan village of Masanchi burned or damaged.[89] The incident highlighted fears that growing nationalism amongst ethnic Kazakhs has the potential to destabilise the interethnic stability that Nazarbayev put at the centre of his political project. Labour rights As set out above and in the essay contribution by Mihra Rittmann the labour situation, after a decade of pressure on household incomes and structural change in the economy, remains challenging. After years of struggle and Government crackdowns in the years since Zhanaozen it has become harder than ever for oil workers to organise at scale to defend their rights. Mihra Rittmann’s essay documents the depressing history of the legal cases and convictions against union leaders Larisa Kharkova, Amin Eleusinov and Nurbek Kushakbaev that included ‘freedom restriction’ bans on being involved in trade union activity. The independent confederations previously led by Larisa Kharkova, firstly the Confederation of Free Trade Unions of Kazakhstan (KSPK) and then Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of the Republic of Kazakhstan (KNPRK), were ultimately liquidated due to bureaucratic harassment despite international pressure and local protests including hunger strikes by 400 union members in 2017.[90] The largest, state recognised and state sympathetic, trade union confederation the Federation of Trade Unions of Kazakhstan (FPRK) remains suspended by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) for failing to meet its standards on independence.[91] Erlan Baltabay, leader of the Industrial Trade Union of Fuel and Energy Workers (part of Kharkova’s KNPRK), has been in and out of jail since 2017 on a series of dubious charges, including a sentence in 2019 that combined an initial seven year jail term with a similar length ban on union activity, though after international pressure this was followed by a Presidential Pardon for the initial jail term and given a new five month conviction.[92] Though he was finally released in March 2020 his ‘freedom restriction’ on his activism remains until 2026.[93] Labour activist Erzhan Elshibayev remains in prison on a five year prison sentence after his conviction in 2019 on highly dubious charges that came in the wake of him leading protests against unemployment in Zhanaozen, which included criticisms of Nazarbayev that were subsequently shared online. This is despite a ruling of the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention calling for his immediate release and credible concerns that he is suffering abuse by prison guards.[94] Along with the stick wielded against union leaders, the carrot often deployed by the Government when trying to encourage workers to go along with state plans to ‘optimise’ the oil sector and privatise functions of oil service companies was an ‘early retirement’ scheme where they would get an upfront lump sum equivalent to 50 per cent of salary for five years. This would often be alongside support for them to retrain for other forms of work or to start their own businesses, as well as other inducements to prevent or end strike action in order to keep a lid on the potential for wider political unrest. In keeping with the Government’s philosophy of modernisation within the system they have offered training to trade unionists on how to negotiate their grievances through the labour code rather than resorting to strikes that they will continue to repress. The passage in 2020 of long-overdue amendments to the law on trade unions gave some degree of hope for the future if it were to be properly implemented. The changes, which came after repeated criticisms from the International Labour Organisation, would not force local or sectoral unions to become part of a national federation.[95] However, so far signs are not encouraging given that the Industrial Trade Union of Fuel and Energy Workers was suspended for six months in February 2021 on the basis of non-compliance with provisions of the old 2014 Trade Union law that had supposedly been removed in the 2020 amendments.[96] The lack of progress has led the ILO to continue its criticisms over Kazakhstan’s lack of implementation of its reforms at its June 2021 sitting of its Committee on the Application of Standards.[97] In line with their peers around the world workers in Kazakhstan’s gig economy, which has significantly expanded in recent years including through a significant rise in delivery services during the pandemic, have been organising to improve their pay and working conditions amid efforts by bosses to weaken them. Over the last few months couriers working for international companies Wolt and Glovo have engaged in public protests and unofficial strike action, while such protests were narrowly avoided at local firm Chocofood.[98] Attempts at unionising the couriers are ongoing despite risks of reprisals from both the companies and the Government. Media freedom Unsurprisingly, given the political tensions outlined above, Kazakhstan faces a number of media freedom challenges. The country ranks 155th out of 180 in the Reporters without Borders (RSF) 2021 World Press Freedom Index.[99] As with much else there is some degree of differentiation in the states reaction to outlets with links to the opposition and other organisations that are simply critical of it. Independent news websites such as Vlast.kz and Mediazona have been able to grow their readership and undertake hard hitting investigations, becoming more outspoken in the Tokayev-era and testing the limits of the levels of criticism the system will allow. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is able to operate in the country, and is afforded some protection given US Government advocacy on its behalf, but its journalists are facing pressure when covering protests and other contentious issues. Instagram (the country’s most used social media platform) and YouTube are increasingly home to critical voices, albeit ones that often stay focused on social and economic rather than party political challenges.[100] Traditional media is much more restricted with many opposition and independent newspapers having been forced to close. Independent TV channels were squeezed off the airwaves in the late 90s after a massive hike in licensing fees and tighter bureaucratic pressure on dissenting voices.[101] After a cat and mouse game with the authorities lasting between 2002-2016 the last iterations and offshoots of Kazakhstan’s highest profile opposition-aligned newspaper Respublica were forced to close and a number of its journalists were jailed.[102] The few independent minded print outlets that remain, such as Uralskaya Nedelya in Oral and Dat in Almaty, continue to face heavy pressure. For example, Lukpan Akhmedyarov, editor of Uralskaya Nedelya, faced threats earliest this year for reporting a leak from a high profile local corruption trial.[103] Akmedyarov had previously been heavily assaulted in 2012 for his work in exposing another corruption scandal. Officials have regularly denied accreditation to independent journalists, limiting their ability to cover official government announcements and the rules have now been formally tightened requiring journalists to be pared with an official chaperone (‘a host’) when covering government events.[104] Similarly media workers have repeatedly been arrested or harassed whilst covering unsanctioned protests over recent years. Overall the Justice for Journalists Foundation recorded 24 incidents of physical attacks or threats of violence against Kazakhstani media workers in 2020, as well as a far broader range of online and bureaucratic harassment.[105] Galiya Azhenova’s essay draws attention to a number of these incidents. There are warning signs ahead for Kazakhstan’s online media. The laws on spreading misinformation during COVID have been used to chill reporting and particularly activism from online commentators with political connections.[106] The case of Temirlan Ensebek, a satirist who was detained by police and forced to close down (on charges of disinformation) his Instagram channel over parodies featuring Nazarbayev, is a reminder that while the criminal offense of defamation (slander) has been recently removed from the Criminal Code, laws against ‘insult’ (the ‘humiliation of honour and dignity of other person’) and in particular insult against government officials remain (including specific provisions, Article 373, relating to Nazarbayev as leader of the nation and his family that could have led to up to three years in prison for Ensebek).[107] Galiya Azhenova also points how the transfer of defamation from the criminal to administrative code has left local police trying to judge complex issues of free speech and therefore instigating lots of administrative cases for criticism of local officials. The Ministry of Information is preparing a new draft law on digital media (on Mass Communications) that is believed to be likely to include a definition of ‘internet resources’ thereby extending a number of different restrictions that apply in print and on television to online platforms as a way of curbing its current relative freedoms. Cashing in Kazakhstan’s resource wealth have enabled many of those with access to political influence to become very wealthy, amid the scramble for oil in the mid-1990s and the subsequent boom years, perhaps few more so than First President Nazarbayev’s own family. Gauging the true extent of the family’s wealth is a difficult task but a recent investigation by RFE/RL identified at least $785 million in European and US real estate purchases made by Nazarbayev’s family members and their in-laws in six countries over a 20-year span.[108] One of the first major public debates about corruption in the ruling elite was the ‘Kazakhgate’ scandal that came to public attention in 2002 and 2003 with US Prosecutors alleging that around $80 million in funds from US oil companies were diverted into Swiss bank accounts for the use by President Nazarbayev and other leading officials in order to help win contracts on the Tengiz oilfields. The US businessman (and Counsellor to the President of Kazakhstan) James Giffen who was at the heart of the case would eventually serve no jail time after most of the charges were dropped, not because the financial transfers did not take place, but on the basis that there were reasonable grounds to believe he had been working with the CIA at the time of the affair.[109] Kazakhstani journalists who covered the story were less fortunate with one of the main investigators of the case, Sergei Duvanov, subsequently jailed on what were widely seen as fabricated rape charges and pressure was put on newspapers such Respublica that had covered the story.[110] While, as in Kazakhgate, allegations would occasionally touch Nazarbayev himself (including recently when businessman Bulat Utemuratov, alleged by US diplomats to be his financial fixer, was swept up in the ongoing saga over retrieving BTA assets from Ablyazov, with three billion USD in assets frozen by the UK courts) more often than not public discussion around the family’s wealth centred on his children and in particular the husbands of the oldest two daughters.[111] Dinara Kulibayeva and her husband Timur Kulibayev, a businessman who held many senior positions in state affiliated bodies (including the sovereign wealth fund Samruk-Kazyna) and throughout the energy industry (including sitting on the board of Russian energy giant Gazprom), have become the second richest people in Kazakhstan.[112] The Kulibayevs are known to have substantial holdings in the UK, including the former home of Prince Andrew (Sunninghill Park), a connection that would periodically be raised in the British press over allegations that the Prince did favours for Kulibayev whilst serving as UK trade envoy and over his closeness to Kulibayev’s former mistress Goga Ashkenazi.[113] More recently, in December 2000, the Financial Times alleged Kulibayev’s involvement in a scheme to siphon millions of dollars from a Chinese pipeline contract.[114] Nazarbayev’s oldest daughter Dariga Nazarbayeva has had the highest profile presence in Kazakhstan’s public life over the years and had been often touted as a potential successor to her father. After a media ownership career in the 1990s, she formally entered politics in 2003 with her own ‘Azar’ party that was elected to the Mazhilis in 2004. Her party would formally merge with her father’s Otan party to create Nur-Otan, the ruling party of Kazakhstan to this day. After sitting out the next Parliament she returned in 2012 on the Nur-Otan list, becoming the Nur-Otan Parliamentary leader and Deputy Chair of the Mazhilis from 2014-15 before becoming Deputy Prime Minister for a year and then joining the Senate in 2016. Upon Tokayev’s assentation to the Presidency Dariga would become Chair of the Senate and the formal next in line to the Presidency. Until 2007 she was married to the controversial oligarch Rakhat Aliyev, whose notorious reputation has repeatedly singed the credibility of the system over his financial dealings and links to criminality. Aliyev would ultimately be carted-off to Vienna as Ambassador to Austria and the OSCE as claims of his involvement in the murders of two bankers began to swirl.[115] He would ultimately be charged and sentenced in absentia in Kazakhstan for those crimes, alongside allegations of a further murder of opposition politician Altynbek Sarsenbayev, the suspicious death of his former mistress Anastasiya Novikova, as well as allegations of torture, kidnapping and evidence of money-laundering. Aliyev would ultimately be found hanged in an Austrian prison in 2015 while awaiting trial over the murder of the bankers.[116] The link to Aliyev was of later relevance to a high profile, and ultimately unsuccessful, case by the UK National Crime Agency that sought to use an Unexplained Wealth Order to freeze ownership of three UK homes worth £80 million belonging to Nazarbayeva and her family. The National Crime Agency had argued that the properties came from Aliyev’s ill-gotten gains but the court sided with Nazarbayeva’s position that these assets had been procured with her own money.[117] However, in the wake of the trial she was surprisingly removed as Chair of the Senate (and from the line of Presidential succession) by President Tokayev in May 2020 and it remains unclear whether this was due to the public impact of the revelations of her wealth or an internal power struggle that led to her removal. Later in 2020 further revelations of the extent of Nazarbayeva’s UK property holdings were revealed when she was found to be the owner of £140 million worth of buildings on Baker Street in Central London.[118] Despite these further revelations about the size of her personal wealth she made her return to Kazakhstani politics in January 2021 by returning to the Mazhils as a Nur-Otan parliamentarian.[119] As the situation of Nazarbayev’s daughters and indeed Muktar Ablyazov shown above illustrate the UK is a major external venue for the investments and entanglements of Kazakhstan’s elite. Recent analysis has shown that Kazakhstan was one of the major beneficiaries of the UK’s Tier one Investor visa system (or Golden Visas as they are known) with 205 Kazakhstani’s gain UK residency in the period 2008-2015 (the fifth most common country and the largest per capita excluding microstates).[120] While luxury property market may act as a store of wealth from Kazakhstan it is worth noting that according to the UK Government’s most recent figures Foreign Direct Investment from Kazakhstan into the UK totalled less than one million pounds in 2019.[121] The former first family are far from only people with political connections in being able to make their fortunes in post-Independence Kazakhstan. Just to cite one indicative example, RFE/RL recently exposed how former high ranking officials in the Education Ministry, particularly the family of Bakhytzhan Zhumagulov, own most of Kazakhstan’s for-profit colleges and universities.[122] Access to political influence over sectors of the economy have led to opportunities for officials, their families and associates to enrich themselves. Religion As with so many issues in Kazakhstan the state’s approach to religion is rooted in its desire to main stability, both between its citizenry and of the system as a whole. Kazakhstan is a predominantly Muslim Country (72 per cent) but given the residual size of its Russian population Orthodox Christianity retains a significant toe hold (23 per cent) alongside other religions linked to smaller minority groups.[123] So as a result of the post-Independence demographics and Nazarbayev’s own vision of the nation, Islamic identity played less of a role than in its Central Asian neighbours as a building block of Kazakhstani national identity (as indeed did the initial reticence to conflate Kazakhstan’s nation-building project with ethnic Kazakh identity, though it would be infused with Kazakh folk symbolism such as the Samruk bird). As such Kazakhstan’s constitution does not make any reference to Islam or any other specific religion, retaining its secular status.[124] Kazakhstan has used this approach religion as a key part of its nation branding not only internally but on the world stage. Since 2003, Kazakhstan has hosted a Nazarbayev-centric interfaith initiative known as the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions that brings together senior figures from larger ‘mainstream’ or ‘traditional’ denominations of world religions.[125] It preaches mutual toleration and understanding for the mainstream institutions that the Government of Kazakhstan believes it can do business with at a domestic level and use strategically at an international level to promote an image of tolerance and peace, as well as a role for Kazakhstan (and Nazarbayev personally) as a convenor to promote those goals. For religious groups that fall outside the ‘traditional mainstream’ however it can be much tougher. As a result Kazakhstan can find itself lauded by international actors for promoting religious tolerance, while simultaneously being recommended for placement on the State Department’s Special Watch List for Religious Freedom by the US Commission on International Religious Freedom (albeit the State Department has not given yet it this designation).[126] The challenge in Kazakhstan, as in the secular world, is with the issue of unregistered groups where the state makes it hard to register and cracks down on anything that is not. Kazakhstan’s 2011 Law on Religious Activity and Religious Associations set stringent requirements on what types of groups could be registered and how, with a minimum of 50 Kazakhstani citizens required to set up a local religious organisation through to at least 5,000 members (with 300 in each oblast as well as in Almaty, Nur-Sultan and Shymkent) to set up a national organisation.[127] There are also heavy restrictions on proselytisation, such as requirements that religious materials can only be distributed on the premises of a registered religious groups, which have been seen to target Jehovah’s Witnesses and evangelical protestant groups. There has, however, been a downward trend in the number of administrative offenses recorded each year in relation to this law, with 139 cases reported in 2020 down from 284 in 2017 according to the religious freedom organisation Forum 18.[128] The newly independent state built on the legacy of Soviet religious management and registration by creating the Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan under which all registered mosques are affiliated. Wearing of the hijab in schools is restricted through the widespread application of school uniform policy preventing the wearing of religious symbols.[129] As elsewhere in the region concerns about religious radicalisation stem both from concerns about the risk of terrorism and from the growth of groups that fall outside of the state’s control. Non-violent extremist groups such as Tablighi Jamaat and Hizb ut-Tahrir are banned and the use of the term ‘extremist’ has been used widely in arrests of government critics (both religious and secular) without proven ties to violence. Women’s and LGBTQ+ rights In terms of women’s political leadership in Kazakhstan’s the OSCE note that ‘women held only one out of 17 (regional) Akim and two out of 22 ministerial positions’ at the time of the January 2021 Parliamentary elections. Despite the introduction of a 30 per cent quota the number of women in the newly elected Mazhilis actually fell from 29 to 28 seats.[130] As noted above and in the essay by Dr Khalida Azhigulova efforts to introduce new legislation focused on improving women’s rights have met with push back from socially conservative forces. At the moment the legislation on tackling domestic violence in Kazakhstan is weak, with cases usually dealt with under the administrative code (for minor offenses) rather than Criminal Code (which is used only for severe assaults), leading to a situation where the penalties for dropping a cigarette on the street (classified as petty hooliganism) are harsher than for most domestic violence cases.[131] In 2020, 45,000 cases of domestic violence were initiated through the administrative code but is far lower than the true extent of the situation due to under reporting and even then more than 60 per cent of the cases are withdrawn before a ruling is made due to pressure for family reconciliation.[132] It is positive that President Tokayev has recommitted to a law on domestic violence as part of his recent Human Rights Decree but the details remain likely to be keenly fought over, such as whether ‘minor beatings’ would become a criminal offense or not.[133] Attempts to bring in laws against sexual harassment have stalled under pressure from the similar social conservative forces. International Women’s day (March 8th) has often been a flashpoint between women’s rights activists and socially conservative forces across Central Asia. In a positive step in 2021 the Women’s March was given permission by the city authorities in Almaty for the first time and between 500-1,000 women’s rights activists were able to protest in what has been described as Kazakhstan’s largest women’s march.[134] However, the state remains reticent to allow groups undertaking more ‘radical’ advocacy on both women’s and LGBTQ+ rights to get a hearing. The group Feminata has been repeatedly denied official registration and its leaders were recently attacked by unknown assailants in Shymkent whilst holding a private meeting on gender equality before being detained by police ‘for their own safety’.[135] More broadly for LGBTQ+ Kazakhstanis the situation remains tough. Homosexuality was decriminalised in 1998 (unlike in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan) but the legal frameworks to protect the community are piecemeal (based on generalised anti-discrimination provisions in the Constitution) and cultural attitudes remain deeply hostile in large segments of society.[136] In 2015 and 2018-19 attempts were made by the Government to introduce a Russian style law on ‘propaganda’ about ‘non-traditional sexual orientation’ that would have restricted the ability for members of the LGBTQ+ community and rights activists to speak openly about their concerns.[137] These efforts were pushed back after both local campaigning and pressure from Kazakhstan’s western partners, but there are concerns efforts will be made in Parliament to try again in the near future. Aigerim Kamidola’s essay highlights current measures to past a draft Law ‘On the Introduction of Amendments and Additions to Some Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Family and Gender Policy’ that would remove the term gender from existing the anti-discrimination law and replace it with ‘equality on the basis of sex’. This move taps into narratives that have seen the concept of gender stigmatised both as a general label attached to LGBTQ+ and Women’s rights (‘gender ideology’) by illiberal or anti-Western ‘anti-Gender’ campaigners across the post-Soviet space, as well as being used in a more narrow sense as to specific debates around rights and protections for transgender people. International influence Kazakhstan has so far successfully pursued a multi-vector foreign policy that has enabled it to negotiate tricky regional relationships and project a positive image of the country on the world stage Kazakhstan. The country has remained part of the Moscow-oriented post-Soviet regional infrastructure such as the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Collective Security Treaty Organisation and more recently the Eurasian Economic Union. Despite the somewhat fraught domestic political challenges China has been steadily growing its influence with over 18 per cent of Kazakhstan’s total trade and almost five per cent of its total inward investment, as well as a deepening security relationship that includes membership of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[138] For a long-time under President Nazarbayev Kazakhstan assumed a regional leadership role within and to some extent on behalf of Central Asia, though in recent years Uzbekistan’s President Mirziyoyev has ended his country’s virtual isolation and the regional balance is somewhat more evenly split between the region’s most populous country (Uzbekistan) and its richest (Kazakhstan). At the same time, Kazakhstan has dramatically deepened its economic ties to the West as touched on above. The EU is Kazakhstan’s largest external trading partner, accounting for 30 per cent of its external trade, and the country is the first in Central Asia to conclude a new Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (EPCA) which came into force in 2020. The EU institutions have tended to raise human rights and governance issues within the confines of its formal human rights dialogue processes, though the European Parliament has often been more vocal on these issues despite ratifying the EPCA.[139] The OSCE has always been an important part of Kazakhstan’s diplomatic initiatives with Kazakhstan holding the chairmanship in office in 2010 and using the opportunity to host a rare summit of the organisation’s heads of Government (it was the last time such an event has taken place, with the next most recent OSCE summit taking place in 1999).[140] As a sign of Kazakhstan’s continuing involvement Former Foreign Minister Kairat Abdrakhmanov became the High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM) in December 2020. Other initiatives to put Kazakhstan (and particularly Astana, now Nur-Sultan) on the map include the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions as noted above and the ‘Astana process’ which has seen Kazakhstan host peace talks over the Syrian crisis since 2017. Kazakhstan’s position as a relatively prosperous, well connected country with a broad base to its international relations means that there are some opportunities for international influence over the trajectory of its performance on human rights issues but these should not be overstated. Its leadership, and particularly a number of younger generation of officials and leaders, care about Kazakhstan’s reputation, something it has worked hard to promote internationally as a good partner and modern country. There is an ongoing desire from Kazakhstan to continue to receive foreign investment and support, particularly as the world transitions away from fossil fuels. However, it is far from clear that these considerations outweigh the desire to maintain the political and economic status quo, particularly amongst the upper echelons of the state and particularly the security apparatus. Image by Jussi Toivanen under (CC). [1] Francisco Olmos, State-building myths in Central Asia, Foreign Policy Centre, October 2019, https://fpc.org.uk/state-building-myths-in-central-asia/ [2] Wudan Yan, The nuclear sins of the Soviet Union live on in Kazakhstan, Nature, April 2019, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01034-8 [3] Institute of Demography named after A.G. Vishnevsk National Research University Higher School of Economics, 1989 All-Union Population Census National composition of the population in the republics of the USSR: Kazakh SSR, http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=5 [4] Alimana Zhanmukanova, Is Northern Kazakhstan at Risk to Russia?, The Diplomat, April 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/is-northern-kazakhstan-at-risk-to-russia/; RFE/RL, A Tale Of Russian Separatism In Kazakhstan, August 2014, https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-kazakhstan-russian-separatism/25479571.html [5] CIA World Factbook, Kazakhstan, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/#people-and-society [6] Alimana Zhanmukanova, Is Northern Kazakhstan at Risk to Russia?, The Diplomat, April 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/is-northern-kazakhstan-at-risk-to-russia/ [7] The World Bank, GDP growth (annual per cent) – Kazakhstan, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=KZ [8] IEA, Kazakhstan energy profile, April 2020, https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan-energy-profile [9] Maurizio Totaro, Collecting beetles in Zhanaozen: Kazakhstan’s hidden tragedy, openDemocracy, May 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/yrysbek-dabei-zhanaozen-kazakhstans-hidden-tragedy/ [10] Abdujalil Abdurasulov, Kazakhstan's land reform protests explained, April 2016, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-36163103 [11] UN Human Rights, “Kazakhstan should release rights defenders Bokayev and Ayan” – UN experts, December 2016, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20990&LangID=E; Sarah McCloskey, Why Kazakh political prisoner Max Bokayev should be released, openDemocracy, April 2019, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/why-kazakh-political-prisoner-max-bokayev-should-be-released/ [12] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Cracks Down on Weekend Protests, The Diplomat, May 2016 https://thediplomat.com/2016/05/kazakhstan-cracks-down-on-weekend-protests/; Eurasianet, Kazakhstan Takes Autocratic Turn With Mass Detentions, May 2016, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-takes-autocratic-turn-mass-detentions [13] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Bans Sale of Agricultural Lands to Foreigners, The Diplomat, May 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/05/kazakhstan-bans-sale-of-agricultural-lands-to-foreigners/ [14] David Trilling, China’s water use threatens Kazakhstan’s other big lake, Eurasianet, March 2021, https://www.intellinews.com/china-s-water-use-threatens-kazakhstan-s-other-big-lake-207026/ [15] RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Dozens Of Mothers Protest In Kazakhstan Demanding Government Support, February 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/dozens-of-mothers-protest-in-kazakhstan-demanding-government-support/29759290.html; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Angry Kazakh Mothers Demand Reforms After Five Girls Die In House Fire, February 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/angry-kazakh-mothers-demand-reforms-after-five-girls-die-in-house-fire/29771963.html [16] The move also came 30 years after his elevation to become First Secretary of the Communist party. [17] Paolo Sorbello, Kazakhstan celebrates its leader with two more statues, Global Voices, July 2021, https://globalvoices.org/2021/07/06/kazakhstan-celebrates-its-leader-with-two-more-statues/; Andrew Roth, Oliver Stone derided for film about ‘modest’ former Kazakh president, The Guardian, July 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/11/oliver-stone-film-ex-kazakhstan-president-nursultan-nazabayev; Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan’s golden man gets the Oliver Stone treatment, Eurasianet, July 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-golden-man-gets-the-oliver-stone-treatment [18] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Remains Nazarbayev’s State, The Diplomat, October 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/10/kazakhstan-remains-nazarbayevs-state/ [19] Global Monitoring, COVID-19 pandemic – Kazakhstan, https://global-monitoring.com/gm/page/events/epidemic-0001994.sOJcVU487awH.html?lang=en [20] World Health Organisation, COVID-19 Kazakhstan, https://covid19.who.int/region/euro/country/kz [21] Qazaqstan TV News, Doctors of the capital showed the situation inside the hospital, July 2021, https://qazaqstan.tv/news/143209/ [22] William Tompson Twitter post, Twitter, April 2021, https://twitter.com/william_tompson/status/1385102759117180931?s=20; Dmitriy Mazorenko, Dariya Zheniskhan and Almas Kaisar, Kazakhstan is caught in a vicious cycle of debt. The pandemic has only made it worse, openDemocracy, June 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/kazakhstan-caught-vicious-cycle-debt-pandemic-has-only-made-it-worse/ [23] Bagdat Asylbek, Diagnosis: "devastation". Kazakhstani health care and pandemic, Radio Azattyq, August 2020, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-coronavirus-national-health-system/30768857.html; Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Former health minister arrested, Eurasianet, November 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-former-health-minister-arrested [24] Bakhytzhan Toregozhina, Pandemic and Human Rights: Only Repressive System is Functioning in Kazakhstan, Cabar Central Asia, July 2020, https://cabar.asia/en/pandemic-and-human-rights-only-repressive-system-is-functioning-in-kazakhstan?pdf=36177. Though Kazakhstan already had laws in place against ‘disinformation’ that were able to be used. [25] Madina Aimbetova, Freedom of expression in Kazakhstan still a distant prospect, says prosecuted activist, Global Voices, July 2020, https://globalvoices.org/2020/07/15/freedom-of-expression-in-kazakhstan-still-a-distant-prospect-says-jailed-activist/ [26] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expression during Covid-19; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html; Asim Kashgarian, Rights Groups: Kazakh Authorities Use Coronavirus to Smother Political Dissent, VOA News, November 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/rights-groups-kazakh-authorities-use-coronavirus-smother-political-dissent [27] Jeff Bell, Twitter post, Twitter, January 2021, https://twitter.com/ImJeffBell/status/1347934173433106435?s=20 [28] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Authorities use pandemic to quash protests, Eurasianet, March 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-authorities-use-pandemic-to-quash-protests [29] DW, Kazakhstan abolishes death penalty, January 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty/a-56117176 [30] Radio Azattyk, Direct elections of rural akims: the campaign has not started yet, but obstacles are already being raised, May 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31240547.html [31]OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Parliamentary Elections, January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850 [32] OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Parliamentary Elections, January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850 [33] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Civil society complains of pre-election pressure, Eurasianet, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-civil-society-complains-of-pre-election-pressure [34] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Nervous authorities keep election observers at arm’s length, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nervous-authorities-keep-election-observers-at-arms-length [35] The Economist, All the parties in Kazakhstan’s election support the government, January 2021, https://www.economist.com/asia/2021/01/09/all-the-parties-in-kazakhstans-election-support-the-government [36] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Nervous authorities keep election observers at arm’s length, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nervous-authorities-keep-election-observers-at-arms-length [37] RFE/RL, Kazakh Opposition Figure Calls On Supporters To Vote To Expose 'Opposition' Party, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-opposition-figure-calls-on-supporters-to-vote-to-expose-opposition-party/30956477.html [38] For a good summation of the history of the history of this case see the chapter in Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [39] Ibid. [40] Hogan Lovells, Hogan Lovells Secures Major High Court Victory for BTA Bank in US $6bn Fraud Case, August 2018, https://www.hoganlovells.com/en/news/hogan-lovells-secures-major-high-court-victory-for-bta-bank-in-us-6bn-fraud-case [41] Rupert Neate, Arrest warrant for Kazakh billionaire accused of one of world's biggest frauds, The Guardian, February 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/feb/16/arrest-warrant-kazakh-billionaire-mukhtar-ablyazov [42] RFE/RL Kazakh Servicem Italian Officials Imprisoned Over 'Unlawful' Deportation Of Former Kazakh Banker's Wife, Daughter, October 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/30895138.html [43] Dmitry Solovyov and Robin Paxton, Kazakhstan in move to ban opposition parties and media, Reuters, November 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-kazakhstan-opposition-idUKBRE8AK0SE20121121; Human Rights House, Kazakhstan opposition leader sentenced in politically motivated trial, October 2012, https://humanrightshouse.org/articles/kazakhstan-opposition-leader-sentenced-in-politically-motivated-trial/ [44] Vladimir Kozlov, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Vladimir_Kozlov_(politician)# [45] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan is throttling the internet when the president’s rival is online, Eurasianet, July 2018, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-is-throttling-the-internet-when-the-presidents-rival-is-online [46] Manshuk Asautay, Activists demanded the removal of the "Street Party" from the list of banned organisations, Radio Azattyq, https://www.azattyq.org/a/31318167.htm;l RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Kazakh Activists Start Hunger Strike To Protest Opposition Party Ban, June 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-hunger-strike-koshe-party/31318852.html [47] RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Hundreds Rally In Kazakhstan To Protest Growing Chinese Influence, March 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-almaty-anti-china-rally-arrests/31172559.html; Joanna Lillis, Nazarbayev ally wins big in Kazakhstan election after hundreds arrested, The Guardian, June 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds-arrested-as-kazakhs-protest-against-rigged-election; See footage here via Maxim Eristavi’s Twitter feed: https://twitter.com/MaximEristavi/status/1348182003351511042?s=20 [48] Andrey Grishin, When Kazakhstan Will Stop Making “Extremists” of Ordinary People? CABAR Central Asia, March 2020, https://cabar.asia/en/when-kazakhstan-will-stop-making-extremists-of-ordinary-people; Legislationline, Criminal codes – Kazakhstan, https://www.legislationline.org/documents/section/criminal-codes/country/21/Kazakhstan/show; Article 405 of the Criminal Code states - ‘Organisation and participation in activity of public or religious association or other organisation after court decision on prohibition of their activity or liquidation in connection with carrying out by them the extremism or terrorism’; Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Crackdown on Government Critics, July 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/07/kazakhstan-crackdown-government-critics; From Our Member Dignity – Kadyr-kassiyet (KK) from Kazakhstan and Bir Duino from Kyrgyzstan – Anti-Extremist Policies in Russia, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan. Comparative Review, Forum-Asia, April 2020 https://www.forum-asia.org/?p=31521 [49] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Crackdown on Government Critics, July 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/07/kazakhstan-crackdown-government-critics; European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html [50] For example both groups chose to protest on Capital day this year, despite meeting at different times both were swept up in the same rounds of ‘preventative’ arrests. See Joanna Lillis, Twitter post, Twitter, July 2021, https://twitter.com/joannalillis/status/1412272738547421187?s=20 [51] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Journalist Convicted Of Money Laundering, Walks Free In ‘Huge Victory’, September 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-journalist-mamai-convicted-money-laundering-ablyazov/28721897.html [52] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Activist Demands Registration Of Party Before Parliamentary Vote, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-demands-registration-of-party-before-parliamentary-vote/30942877.html; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Opposition Group Allowed To Hold Rally Challenging Upcoming Polls, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-opposition-group-allowed-to-hold-rally-challenging-upcoming-polls/30933581.html; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Twitter post, Twitter, November 2020, https://twitter.com/RFERL/status/1327704146221412352 [53] Bruce Pannier, Hectic Times in Kazakhstan Recently, And For The Foreseeable Future, RFE/RL, June 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/hectic-times-in-kazakhstan-recently-and-for-the-foreseeable-future/30000862.html [54] Colleen Wood, New Civic Movement Urges Kazakhstan to ‘Wake Up’, The Diplomat, June 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/new-civic-movement-urges-kazakhstan-to-wake-up/ [55] Medet Yesimkhanov, Pavel Bannikov and Asem Zhapisheva, Dossier: Who is behind lobbying for the abolitions of laws and the spread of conspiracy theories in Kazakhstan, Factcheck.kz, February 2021, https://factcheck.kz/socium/dose-kto-stoit-za-lobbirovaniem-otmeny-zakonov-i-rasprostraneniem-konspirologii-v-kazaxstane/; Medet Yesimkhanov, Dossier: CitizenGO – an ultra-conservative lobby disguised as a petition site, Factcheck.kz, November 2020, https://factcheck.kz/v-mire/dose-citizengo-ultrakonservativnoe-lobbi-pod-vidom-ploshhadki-dlya-peticij/ [56] Mihra Rittmann, Kazakhstan’s ‘Reformed’ Protest Law Hardly an Improvement, Human Rights Watch, May 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/28/kazakhstans-reformed-protest-law-hardly-improvement [57] Legislation Online, On the procedure for organising and holding peaceful assemblies in the Republic of Kazakhstan, May 2020, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8924/file/Kazakhstan%20-%20Peaceful%20assemblies%20EN.pdf [58] Mihra Rittmann, Kazakhstan’s ‘Reformed’ Protest Law Hardly an Improvement, Human Rights Watch, May 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/28/kazakhstans-reformed-protest-law-hardly-improvement [59] Human Rights Council, Rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, United Nations General Assembly, May 2019, https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/41/41 [60] Indymedia UK, A brief history of “kettling”, November 2010, https://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2010/11/468945.html As described by the OSCE, kettling (or corralling) is a ‘strategy of crowd control that relies on containment […], where law enforcement officials encircle and enclose a section of assembly participants.’ [61] Paul Lewis, Human rights court backs police ‘kettling’, The Guardian, March 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/mar/15/human-rights-court-police-kettling [62] Freedom House, Countries and Territories, https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores?sort=desc&order=Total%20Score%20and%20Status [63] Front Line Defenders, Authorities pressurize human rights groups – Kazakhstan, December 2020, https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/ru/statement-report/human-rights-groups-under-pressure-kazakhstan?fbclid=IwAR2g_4jdv1OeFfSHHc92lmuVz11RnJxNYdFbl2FqEggOm8gpRlnH7A-_vjg; ACCA, Kazakhstan may suspend the activities of the International Journalism Center, January 2021, https://acca.media/en/kazakhstan-may-suspend-the-activities-of-the-international-journalism-center/; Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Government’s war on NGOs claims more victims, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-governments-war-on-ngos-claims-more-victims [64] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Authorities Drop Changes Against NGOs After Outcry, February 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-authorities-drop-charges-ngos-outcry/31087863.html; Bagdat Asylbek, Human Rights Bureau and NGO Echo won lawsuits against tax service, Radio Azattyq, April 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31190073.html [65] OMCT, Harassment on the part of the Kazakh tax authorities against human rights NGOs international legal initiative, June 2021, https://www.omct.org/en/resources/urgent-interventions/harassment-on-the-part-of-the-kazakh-tax-authorities-against-human-rights-ngo-international-legal-initiative; Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Rights Groups Harassed, February 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/02/22/kazakhstan-rights-groups-harassed [66] ICNL, Kazakhstan, May 2021, https://www.icnl.org/resources/civic-freedom-monitor/kazakhstan [67] Government of Kazakhstan, President Tokayev Signs a Decree on Further Measures of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the Field of Human Rights, June 2021, https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/mfa-delhi/press/news/details/215657?lang=kk [68] ACCA, Expert: there are no political prisoners in Kazakhstan, but they are, July 2021, https://acca.media/en/expert-there-are-no-political-prisoners-in-kazakhstan-but-they-are/ [69] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Jailed Kazakh Political Prisoner In Solitary After Slitting Wrists, Rights Group Says, RFE/RL, April 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/jailed-kazakh-political-prisoner-in-solitary-after-slitting-wrists-rights-group-says/31193040.html; EU in Kazakhstan, Twitter post, Twitter, April 2021, https://twitter.com/EUinKazakhstan/status/1380141287760859141; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Jailed Opposition Activist Unexpectedly Granted Early Release, July 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-abishev-release/31359606.html [70] U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan, https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/kazakhstan/; Chris Rickleton, Kazakhstan: Activist dies in detention, piling pressure on the authorities, Eurasianet, February 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-activist-dies-in-detention-piling-pressure-on-the-authorities [71] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Writers Urge President To Release Dissident Poet Atabek, RFE/RL, February 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-writers-urge-president-to-release-dissident-poet-atabek/31121177.html; English PEN, Kazakhstan: take action for imprisoned poet Aron Atabek, https://www.englishpen.org/posts/campaigns/kazakhstan-take-action-for-imprisoned-poet-aron-atabek/ [72] European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html [73] Kazakhstan International Bureau for Human Rights and Rule of Law, Dostiyarov was reportedly beaten, July 2021, https://bureau.kz/kk/ysty%d2%9b/belsendi-dostiyarovtyng-soqqygha-zhyghylghany-habarlandy/ [74] ACCA, Expert: people are deprived of civil and political rights in Kazakhstan, May 2021, https://acca.media/en/expert-people-are-deprived-of-civil-and-political-rights-in-kazakhstan/ [75] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expressions during COVID-19; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html; IPHR, Kazakhstan: Free civil rights defender Asya Tulesova, June 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-free-civil-rights-defender-asya-tulesova.html; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Court Convicts Activist Charged With Assaulting Police, August 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-court-convicts-activist-charged-with-assaulting-police/30779401.html IPHR, Kazakhstan: Free civil rights defender Asya Tulesova, June 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-free-civil-rights-defender-asya-tulesova.html [76] RFE/RL, Kazakh Activist Receives Sentence For Links With Banned Political Group, December 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/another-kazakh-activist-receives-parole-like-sentence-for-links-with-banned-political-group/31015204.html [77] Asemgul Mukhitovna, A resident of Makanchi died at the police station. A case was initiated under the article “Torture”, Radio Azattyq, October 2020, https://www.azattyq.org/a/30900922.html [78] U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan, https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/kazakhstan/; Human Rights Commissioner in the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/ombudsman/activities/1030?lang=en [79] See State Department ibid and ACCA, Kazakhstan: tired of bullying, convict threatens to hang himself, March 2021, https://acca.media/en/kazakhstan-tired-of-bullying-convict-threatens-to-hang-himself/ [80] Duke University, Kazakhstan Rule of Law project, January 2020, https://researchfunding.duke.edu/kazakhstan-rule-law-project [81] Saniyash Toyken, A group of people who demanded a meeting with Asanov spent the night in the building of the Supreme Court, Radio Azattyq, June 2021, https://www.azattyq.org/a/31310280.html [82] Court, An Introduction, https://court.aifc.kz/an-introduction/ [83] Christian Schaich and Christian Reitemeier, The Republic of Kazakhstan’s New Administrative Procedures Code, ZOIS, June 2021, https://en.zois-berlin.de/publications/the-republic-of-kazakhstans-new-administrative-procedures-code; Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Administrative Procedural and Procedural Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, (with changes as of 01.07.2021), https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=35132264#pos=1;-13 [84] Mehmet Volkan Kasikci, Documenting the Tragedy in Xinjiang: An Insider’s View of Atajurt, The Diplomat, January 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/documenting-the-tragedy-in-xinjiang-an-insiders-view-of-atajurt/ [85] Reid Standish, Astana Tried to Silence China Critics, Foreign Policy, March 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/11/uighur-china-kazakhstan-astana/ [86] Agence France-Presse, Xinjiang activist freed in Kazakh court after agreeing to stop campaigning, The Guardian, August 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/17/xinjiang-activist-freed-in-kazakh-court-after-agreeing-to-stop-campaigning; Freedom Now, Kazakhstan: UN Declares Detention of Human Rights Activist Serikzhan Bilash a Violation of International Law, November 2020, https://www.freedom-now.org/kazakhstan-un-declares-detention-of-human-rights-activist-serikzhan-bilash-a-violation-of-international-law/ [87] Bruce Pannier, Activist Defending Ethnic Kazakhs In China Explains Why He Had To Flee Kazakhstan, RFE/RL, January 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/31051495.html [88] Reid Standish and Aigerim Toleukhanova, Kazakh Activism Against China's Internment Camps Is Broken, But Not Dead, April 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-protests-china-xinjiang-rights-abuses/31186209.html [89] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan’s Dugan community stunned by spasm of deadly bloodletting, February 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-dungan-community-stunned-by-spasm-of-deadly-bloodletting; Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Trial over deadly ethnic violence leaves bitter taste for Dungans, Eurasianet, April 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-trial-over-deadly-ethnic-violence-leaves-bitter-taste-for-dungans [90] ITUC CSI IGN, Kazakhstan: Statement of the ITUC Pan-European Regional Council, April 2017, https://www.ituc-csi.org/kazakhstan-statement-of-the-ituc; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Hunger Strike Protests By Oil Workers Growing In Western Kazakhstan, January 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-oil-workers-hunger-strike/28241775.html [91] ITUC CSI IGN, List of affiliated organisations, November 2019, https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/list_of_affiliates_nov_2019.pdf [92] IndustriALL Global Union, IndustriALL calls for release of Kazakh trade union leader, July 2019, http://www.industriall-union.org/industriall-calls-for-release-of-kazakh-trade-union-leader [93] IndustriALL Global Union, Kazakh union leader Erlan Baltabay released, March 2020, http://www.industriall-union.org/kazakh-union-leader-erlan-baltabay-released [94] Human Rights Council, Advance Unedited Version, Freedom Now, May 2021, https://www.freedom-now.org/wp-content/uploads/AUV_WGAD-Opinion_2021-5-KAZ.pdf; Freedom Now, Kazakhstan: Freedom Now Condemns Treatment of Imprisoned Labour Activist, July 2021,https://www.freedom-now.org/kazakhstan-freedom-now-condemns-treatment-of-imprisoned-labor-activist/ [95] Mihra Rittman, Kazakhstan Adopts Long-Promised Amendments to Trade Union Law, Human Rights Watch, December 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/17/kazakhstan-adopts-long-promised-amendments-trade-union-law [96] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Independent Union Under Threat of Suspension, January 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/01/28/kazakhstan-independent-union-under-threat-suspension [97] International Labour Conference, Committee on the Application of Standards, July 2021, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_804447.pdf [98] Radio Azattyk, In Almaty, Glovo couriers who went on strike tried to block the street, July 2021, https://rus.azattyk.org/a/v-almaty-obyavivshie-zabastovku-kurery-glovo-popytalis-perekryt-ulitsu/31345823.html [99] RSF, 2021 World Press Freedom Index, https://rsf.org/en/ranking# [100] Sher Khashimov and Raushan Zhandayeva, Kazakhstan’s Alternative Media Is Thriving—and in Danger, Foreign Policy, July 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/07/12/kazakhstan-alternative-media-thriving-danger/ [101] Ibid. [102] See Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [103] RSF, Regional newspaper editor harassed after investigating real estate scandal, February 2021, https://rsf.org/en/news/regional-newspaper-editor-harassed-after-investigating-real-estate-scandal [104] Order of the Minister of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated June 21, 2013 No. 138, https://online.zakon.kz/m/document/?doc_id=31431046#sub_id=100 CPJ, Kazakhstan adopts new accreditation requirements that journalists fear will promote censorship, March 2021, https://cpj.org/2021/03/kazakhstan-adopts-new-accreditation-requirements-that-journalists-fear-will-promote-censorship/ [105] Justice for Journalists Foundation, Kazakhstan, 2020, https://jfj.fund/report-2020_2/#kz [106] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expression during COVID-19,; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html [107] Paolo Sorbello, Kazakhstan Decriminalizes Defamation, Keeps Hindering Free Media, June 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/kazakhstan-decriminalizes-defamation-keeps-hindering-free-media/; Legislationline, Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, July 2014, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8260/file/Kazakhstan_CC_2014_2016_en.pdf [108] Mike Eckel and Sarah Alikhan, Big Houses, Deep Pockets, RFE/RL, December 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-family-wealth/31013097.html?fbclid=IwAR38vC-WSkYBgPMTm--5XVsTgP5c3oesqt7eomZmsfeUiOjahO5QThDmcGU [109] RFE/RL, After Seven Years, ‘Kazakhgate’ Scandal Ends With Minor Indictment, August 2010, https://www.rferl.org/a/After_Seven_Years_Kazakhgate_Scandal_Ends_With_Minor_Indictment_/2123800.html; Steve LeVine, Was James Giffen telling the truth?, Foreign Policy, November 2010, https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/11/19/was-james-giffen-telling-the-truth/ [110] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev-linked billionaire sucked into UK court battle, Eurasianet, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/international-criticism-of-duvanov-conviction-mounts-against-kazakhstan. See also Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [111] https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-linked-billionaire-sucked-into-uk-court-battle [112] https://forbes.kz/ranking/50_bogateyshih_biznesmenov_kazahstana_-_2020 [113] Robert Booth, Prince Andrew tried to broker crown property deal for Kazakh oligarch, The Guardian, July 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jul/03/prince-andrew-broker-crown-property-kazakh-oligarch; Ian Gallagher, Kazakh-born socialite ‘Lady Goga’ who partied with her ‘very, very close friend’ Prince Andrew at her 30th birthday reveals she leads a far quieter life after turning 40, Mail Online, March 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8113173/The-quiet-life-Lady-Goga.html [114] Financial Times, The secret scheme to skim millions off central Asia’s pipeline megaproject, December 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/80f25f82-5f21-4a56-b2bb-7a48e61dd9c6; Eurasianet, Financial Times: Kazakh leader’s son-in-law skimmed millions from Chinese loads, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/financial-times-kazakh-leaders-son-in-law-skimmed-millions-from-chinese-loans [115] See: Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [116] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Rakhatgate Saga Over as Former Son-in-Law Found Hanged, Eurasianet, February 2015, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-rakhatgate-saga-over-as-former-son-in-law-found-hanged [117]BBC News, Kazakh family win Unexplained Wealth Order battle over London homes, April 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-52216011 [118] George Greenwood, Emanuele Midolo, Marcus Leroux and Leigh Baldwin, Strange case of Dariga Nazarbayeva, mystery owner of Sherlock Holmes’s Baker Street address, The Times, November 2020, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/strange-case-of-dariga-nazarbayeva-mystery-owner-of-sherlock-holmess-baker-street-address-23q7c2fpl [119] Sumaira FH, Nazarbayev’s Daughter Secured Seat In Kazakh Parliament On Ruling Party’s Ticket, Urdu Point, January 2021, https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/nazarbayevs-daughter-secured-seat-in-kazakh-1138712.html [120] John Heathershaw, Twitter post, Twitter, July 2021, https://twitter.com/HeathershawJ/status/1414900706771865602?s=20; Susan Hawley, George Havenhand and Tom Robinson, New Briefing: Red Carpet for Dirty Money – The UK’s Golden Visa Regime, Spotlight on Corruption, July 2021, https://www.spotlightcorruption.org/new-briefing-red-carpet-for-dirty-money-the-uks-golden-visa-regime/; Dominic Kennedy, National security review of golden visas for investors, The Times, July 2021, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/national-security-review-of-golden-visas-for-investors-mz5zsnf0c [121] Department for International Trade, Trade & Investment Factsheets, Kazakhstan, UK Gov, July 2021, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/998607/kazakhstan-trade-and-investment-factsheet-2021-07-07.pdf [122] Ron Synovitz and Manas Kaiyrtayuly, How Top Officials, Relatives Scooped Up Kazakhstan’s Higher – Education Sector, RFE/RL, June 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-universities/31326535.html [123] Pew Research Center, Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050, https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ [124] Legislationline, The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8207/file/Kazakhstan_Constitution_1995_am_2017_en.pdf [125] Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions, http://religions-congress.org/ [126] United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Annual Reports, https://www.uscirf.gov/annual-reports [127] Legislationline, The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan of October 11, 2011, No 483-IV, On Religious Activity and Religious Associations, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/4091/file/Kazakhstan_Law_religious_freedoms_organisations_2011_en.pdf [128] Felix Corley, Kazakhstan: 134 administrative prosecutions in 2020, Forum 18, February 2021, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2634 [129] Zhanagul Zhursin and Farangis Najibullah, The Hijab Debate Intensifies As School Starts In Kazakhstan, RFE/RL, September 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/the-hijab-debate-intensifies-as-school-starts-in-kazakhstan/30148088.html [130] OSCE, Kazakhstan - Parliamentary Elections, 10 January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850 [131] Amina Chaya, What’s wrong with the domestic violence law in Kazakhstan? Part two, Masa Media, November 2020, https://masa.media/ru/site/chto-netak-szakonom-obytovom-nasilii-vkazakhstane-chast-vtoraya [132] Evgeniya Mikhailidi, Alina Zhartieva, Nazerke Kurmangazinova, Victorious Violence, Vlast, February 2021, https://vlast.kz/obsshestvo/43869-pobedivsee-nasilie.html [133] Kazinform, Domestic and domestic violence: MPs and experts talked about the new law, October 2020, https://www.inform.kz/ru/semeyno-bytovoe-nasilie-deputaty-i-eksperty-rasskazali-o-novom-zakone_a3710389 [134] Malika Autalipova and Timur Nusimbekov, The Largest Women’s March in the History of Kazakhstan, Adamar, March 2021, https://adamdar.ca/en/post/the-largest-women-s-march-in-the-history-of-kazakhstan; Asylkhan Mamashevich, National values, LGBT rights and “justification before the European Parliament”. How did the society evaluate the women’s march?, Radio Azattyq, March 2021, https://www.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-gender-equality-different-opinions/31142716.html [135] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Feminist Group Denied Registration, September 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/13/kazakhstan-feminist-group-denied-registration; Mihra Rittmann, Activists Detained in Kazakhstan ‘For Their Own Safety’, Human Rights Watch, June 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/06/01/activists-detained-kazakhstan-their-own-safety [136] The Constitution contains Article 14. 2 which promises ‘No one shall be subject to any discrimination for reasons of origin, social, property status, occupation, sex, race, nationality, language, attitude towards religion, convictions, place of residence or any other circumstances’. See The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legislationonline, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8207/file/Kazakhstan_Constitution_1995_am_2017_en.pdf; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Sexual Minorities In Kazakhstan Hide Who They Are To Avoid Abuse, June 2021 https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-lgbt-hide-from-abuse/31316186.html [137] Draft Law ‘On protection of children from information harming their health and development’, 2015; Ministry of Information and Communication of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Instruction ‘On Classification of Informational Products’ and ‘Methodology of Defining Informational Products for Children (Not) Harming Their Health and Development’, 2018. [138] Zhanna Shayakhmetova, Positive Dynamics Observed in Trade Between Kazakhstan and China, The Astana Times, April 2021, https://astanatimes.com/2021/04/positive-dynamics-observed-in-trade-between-kazakhstan-and-china/ [139] Ayia Reno, “You need to have not only beautiful reform packages.” EU special envoy on relations with Kazakhstan, Radio Azattyq, January 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-eu-relations-peter-burian-special-representative-central-asia/31029755.html; European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html [140] OSCE, Summits, https://www.osce.org/summits [post_title] => Retreating Rights - Kazakhstan: Introduction [post_excerpt] => [post_status] => publish [comment_status] => open [ping_status] => open [post_password] => [post_name] => retreating-rights-kazakhstan-introduction [to_ping] => [pinged] => [post_modified] => 2021-07-22 10:59:43 [post_modified_gmt] => 2021-07-22 09:59:43 [post_content_filtered] => [post_parent] => 0 [guid] => https://fpc.org.uk/?p=6003 [menu_order] => 0 [post_type] => post [post_mime_type] => [comment_count] => 0 [filter] => raw ) [15] => WP_Post Object ( [ID] => 5987 [post_author] => 3 [post_date] => 2021-07-22 11:00:15 [post_date_gmt] => 2021-07-22 10:00:15 [post_content] => As we approach the 30th anniversary of Kazakhstan’s independence this publication finds the country at an important inflection point in its history. The gradual passing of the torch from the First President (Nazarbayev) to President Tokayev, the growing articulation of social concerns in recent years as living standards have been squeezed for many, and the uncertain future that lies ahead for its economy given the global transition away from fossil fuels, all give cause for pause and reflection. Over the last 30 years Kazakhstan’s ruling elite has delivered substantial economic growth - albeit particularly benefiting itself - and has mostly maintained stability between the country’s different ethnic groups. This has come at the clear cost of almost all political freedoms and many civil liberties. The Government and its supporters still argue that gradual change will enable Kazakhstan to transition to democracy and help ‘evolve’ the political culture in Kazakhstan. The Government’s critics, understandably point to the lack of change at the heart of the country’s political system over the last 30 years, where reforms have helped deliver improvements in the standards of living and the delivery of state services but have not lead to a meaningful transfer in political power from the elite to the citizen. The only political choice in Kazakhstan, such as Tokayev assuming the Presidency, is exercised by those already in power. While President Tokayev has promised a ‘listening state’ and committed to delivering reforms that would improve freedoms and make the Government more responsive, so far change from what has gone before has been relatively limited. President Tokayev’s approach seems to be an updating of the existing path of modernisation without democratisation or reform within the system that improves state efficiency and outcomes while mostly retaining existing authoritarian power structures. While the bulk of the population has so far broadly (if sometimes grudgingly) accepted the trade-off between stability and repression, the recent protest movements have highlighted that this cannot necessarily be taken for granted going forwards. The negative outlook for Kazakhstan’s oil and gas wealth, may further exacerbate the existing inequalities within society and frustration at the kleptocratic nature of the current system.[1] So when examining how to try to achieve real change in Kazakhstan there are two main tracks that local activists are pursuing. As Colleen Wood puts in well in her essay ‘Some believe in incremental reform that is achieved through educating authorities and collaborating with government bodies. This involves close monitoring of abuses and going through proper legal channels to redress them; it involves going through the hoops required to register a political party, to try and run a campaign and to take a seat at the table. Others prefer more expansive changes – the overhaul of Kazakhstan’s system of government from a superpresidential system to a parliamentary one, for example – to gradual reform. They opt for direct action and street protests over government working groups and committees, pointing to their constitutionally-protected right to peaceful assembly to justify skirting the required procedure for sanctioned protests. This ideological and tactical pluralism may not be ‘efficient,’ but securing the rights of all to participate in politics is central to improving Kazakhstan’s human rights record.’ What seems clear is that both approaches together are going to be needed in order to drive more fundamental change in Kazakhstan, both in terms of outcomes for citizens and in the nature of the system. Both sets of activists will need both increased local mobilisation and international support to help drive specific changes to make each path more navigable. President Tokayev’s June 2021 Decree ‘On further human rights measures in Kazakhstan’ and the upcoming human rights action plan provide a helpful framework through which to assess the Government’s willingness to change its current course in response to input from local and international partners.[2] Tokayev has committed the Government to take further steps to address:
- Embed consideration of conflict sensitivity across all government actions in FCACs;
- Ensure that its approach to engaging in FCACs puts peacebuilding and peacemaking in a central role, not in competition with other UK policy priorities;
- Use a wide range of tools to achieve its peace goals in FCACs including: diplomacy, sanctions, aid, trade, military engagement, peacebuilding, mediation and private sector regulation;
- Find the right balance between efforts aimed at promoting stability, for example through elite bargains and political deals, and addressing the structural drivers of violent conflict;
- Strengthen its peacebuilding capacity by bringing in more specialist expertise from the peacebuilding sector; improving coordination and information sharing across government and with external experts; enhancing embassy and FCDO operational capacity to support local peace actors; enabling local programming to become more responsive to evolving local situations; providing more settled guidance to the CSSF; and enabling longer project timelines for peacebuilding work;
- Leverage its convening power to shape international aid efforts towards peace;
- Address the gender gaps in its policies and plans, ensuring that it mainstreams gender, women, peace and security priorities in all government commitments;
- Push for greater community accountability for peacekeeping missions and prevent resource diversion into counter-terror operations and other forms of warfighting;
- Strengthen private sector conflict sensitivity with an enhanced modern slavery act, new legal responsibilities for companies fuelling conflict and improving public procurement;
- Strengthen due diligence checks on both the direct use of arms sold and on the indirect consequences of the arms trade with clearer red lines on conflict actors;
- Prioritise partnership, both locally and internationally, in its engagement on FCACs;
- Understand the link between climate change and peace, ensuring that its work on climate change is conflict sensitive so that climate transformation does not embed the structural drivers of conflict; and
- Address its role, and that of its Overseas Territories, as facilitators of international corruption.
- Diplomacy – At a bilateral level, the UK is able to leverage its broad diplomatic presence and relationships to influence and encourage governments and elites in FCACs to abide by international norms, though this is most effective where the UK has strong ties or relationships already in place. Perhaps more significantly, the UK has a strong convening power, both through its wide diplomatic engagement globally, its strong engagement in multilateral institutions, and through its permanent membership of the Security Council, which allows it to influence and shape international diplomatic responses to conflict situations. The UK’s role as a convening power has been shown in its ability to bring together development actors, both governmental and philanthropic, to coalesce around specific solutions, with the work of Gavi – the Vaccine Alliance being a prominent example. Using its role at the UN and membership of groupings, such as the Commonwealth, the UK has scope to further facilitate and support South-South dialogue and collaboration.
- Sanctions –The UK’s Magnitsky-style personal sanctions (asset freezes and travel bans) on human rights abusers and those involved in corruption have begun to be gradually deployed since their first use in summer 2020.[14] As has been highlighted in previous FPC publications and elsewhere, these have the potential to make a significant contribution to the UK’s role as a ‘force for good’ in the world.[15] However, it has been made clear by peacebuilding practitioners involved in this project, that the potential use of sanctions in a conflict context is more contested, given the need to maintain lines of dialogue with potential parties to the conflict.[16] So these sanctions, and the threat of their use, are a tool that should be deployed but will need to be used selectively in a conflict context – when a stick may be needed to push a key actor to the negotiating table or into compliance with an agreement – with thought given to how such sanctions may be toggled on and off to incentivise cooperation in order to meet the UK’s peacebuilding objectives in a given context.
- Peacemaking and political settlements – The UK has not historically been an actor directly involved in mediation activities at a state level, however the Integrated Review commits the UK to place a greater emphasis on the UK’s role in mediation and ‘dispute resolution’.[17] The UK has clear assets that would assist it in this endeavour: its diplomatic network, soft power attractiveness, deep academic and civil society resources that can be drawn upon and a fine selection of stately homes available to host peace talks.[18] However, the UK is not a Norway, Switzerland or Kazakhstan and its ambitions to act as a mediator in the future may be complicated by colonial legacies and perceptions of its geopolitical interests. In many parts of the world it has been, and in some cases still remains, a significant figure in current events. In certain country contexts the UK may fall between two stools, too involved to be seen as a neutral arbiter but not powerful enough to enforce its will. However, the stated desire to play this role may be related to developing the UK’s ‘offer’ in the Indo-Pacific, where the previous withdrawal from East of Suez for the last half century may have dulled some of the rougher edges of the UK’s historic legacy in areas without a direct colonial past, as compared to the more active presence (with both benefits and drawbacks) in Africa and the Middle East in recent decades. Either way the UK does play important roles in support of international peace processes, particularly those led by the UN, where it is able to use its position as a P5 member to influence and shape outcomes at the Security Council level, while also providing diplomatic, technical and financial support for peace processes at an operational level.
- Peacebuilding – Targeted support for institutions and communities to address the root causes of conflict and to build capacities for peace is an area in which the UK has significant expertise – both within FCDO and among the broader UK peacebuilding community of experts and NGOs. The UK’s CSSF has been a strategic source of funding for such activities, though it will be important to recognise the impact on the sector of their reduced ability to access substantial EU project funding.
- Aid – The UK is a significant aid donor by any measure. This gives it significant influence in terms of its ability to engage with governments in countries receiving support, while also allowing it to target structural drivers of conflict, including poverty, governance and inequality. Perhaps equally significantly, the size of the UK’s aid contribution compared to other donors in many countries, gives it the ability to influence and lead the coordination and strategic prioritisation of international assistance. This has the potential to allow the UK to help shape the way international aid is delivered more broadly.[19]
- Trade – The UK’s newly independent trade policy, in theory at least, enables it to incorporate the ideas of conflict sensitivity into its future agreements and strategy. However, it has been clear in the initial post-Brexit phase of negotiations that the need for speed in mirroring the provision of previous EU trade deals and desire to take new economic opportunities to show progress has taken precedence over using trade more strategically. In practice, however FCACs represent a very small portion of the UK’s foreign trade. As a result, the UK is rarely able to use trade policy to influence peace and conflict in FCACs directly. Nonetheless, where the UK has trading relationships with other states which may be involved in conflicts, it has the potential to apply conditions to trade to influence behaviour. As a result of the UK mirroring existing EU trade deals it now has trade deals with a number of FCACs either individually or as part of regional groupings that may be of potential relevance in future.[20] Even in circumstances where there would be limited scope to use trade relations for the purposes of leverage, a conflict sensitive approach to trade policy would see it be more responsive to human rights and conflict concerns (for example the UK was slow to amend its trade guidance for Myanmar even after the expulsion of the Rohingyas). However, the most obvious example of where the UK applies conditional trade relates to arms and military equipment, though the extent to which this has an impact has been called into question in relation to the conflict in Yemen.
- Private sector – Trading with FCACs poses risks that many private sector actors are often reluctant to take. However, as addressed in more detail in the essay by Phil Bloomer, the UK also has a role to play in ensuring the relatively small group of its firms, often in the extractive sectors, that do operate in FCACs abide by international best practice including the Ruggie principles for business and human rights.
- Military engagement – Depending on political will, the UK military can be deployed in a variety of ways with respect to FCACs, including provision of training to national partners, deployment as advisors, monitors or peacekeepers under the auspices of the UN, provision of technical and operational support, and deployment in direct combat roles.
- The objectives test: Are the objectives of the activity relevant, timely and appropriate?
- The harm-minimisation test: Have all reasonable measures been undertaken to identify and reduce the ways in which the activity could cause harm?
- The benefit-maximisation test: Have all reasonable measures been undertaken to identify and leverage opportunities to contribute to peace through the activity?
- The proportionality test: Are the harms identified in test 2 proportional to the benefits identified in tests 1 and 3?
- Embed consideration of conflict sensitivity and the myriad direct and indirect ways in which its activities can worsen or address conflict into decision-making relating to all areas of UK engagement in FCACs, not just within aid projects where it has made significant progress but across HMG. It should look to embed a structured way of approaching conflict sensitivity due diligence to assess and mitigate the potential impact of interventions.
- Ensure that its approach to engaging in FCACs puts peace in a central role. Wherever possible peacebuilding and peacemaking should not be in competition with other UK policy priorities for fragile and conflict-affected states, but at the heart of them; addressing violent conflict is often a precondition for advancing sustainable stability, and it is not always an inevitable product of other policy interventions without a clear focus on making it so.
- Be willing and able to use a wide range of policy tools to assist in its conflict resolution and peacebuilding objectives including diplomacy, sanctions, aid, trade, military engagement (including peacekeeping), peacebuilding resources (both inside Government and in civil society), mediation (in appropriate contexts), and reform of private sector involvement in FCACs.
- Find the correct balance in its aid activities between efforts aimed at promoting stability, for example through elite bargains and political deals, with the need also to address the structural drivers of violent conflict. ‘Politically smart’ aid should look to create the opportunities, through stability, to then allow for longer-term structural change which is necessary for the evolution of like-minded peaceful societies the UK would like to see.
- Strengthen its peacebuilding and conflict resolution capacity. This could include:
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- Bringing in more specialist expertise from the peacebuilding sector into government, building on the existing secondment systems for senior academics and by opening up recruitment;
- Improving coordination and information sharing across government and with external experts;
- Enhancing embassy and FCDO operational capacity, helping find ways for the UK to support smaller, local peace actors rather than relying on multilaterals or large private consultancies;
- Enabling local programming to become more responsive to evolving local situations and incorporating the learning developed through ongoing project delivery;
- Providing more settled priority setting and guidance to the CSSF, and
- Allowing for longer project timelines for peacebuilding work beyond the yearly budget cycle.
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- Leverage its strong convening capacity to build international coalitions, as the UK can rarely act alone in FCACs. It should use its ability to consider conflict from a wide range of perspectives in government, to multiply its impact by seeking to influence and shape the collective effort of international aid and other actions towards peace.
- Address the gender gaps in its planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of policies and plans, ensuring that they mainstream gender, women, peace and security priorities in all government programmes and pledges. It should maintain its commitment to influence the global agenda on gender, women, peace and security.
- Use its position on the UN Security Council and involvement with the policy conversations to push for:
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- Greater accountability to, and centring of, the communities at the heart of peacekeeping missions;
- To resist any urge for state-based mechanisms to micromanage peace operations;
- To resist state centricity in multilateral responses to areas of fragility and embrace the fact that states can often themselves be part of the problem and non-state actors part of the solution; and
- To counter any attempt to have UN resources or UN supported missions diverted into counter-terror operations, counterinsurgency, or other forms of warfighting.
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- Strengthen the conflict sensitivity of UK private sector activities, by strengthening the modern slavery act, introducing new legal responsibilities for companies that failing to prevent human rights abuses, corruption or that fuel conflict in FCACs and strengthening conflict and human rights sensitivity compliance in public procurement.
- Improve compliance with the principles of the Arms Trade Treaty and strengthen due diligence checks on both the direct use of arms sold and on the indirect consequences of the arms trade. It should provide clearer red lines on arms sales and military collaboration with conflict actors.
- Prioritise partnership in its engagement in FCACs. Partnership is key to effective peacemaking and peacebuilding – conflict is too complex and systemic for any one country or institution to tackle single-handedly. Working authentically in local partnership is the hardest, but most important challenge for UK Government and civil society alike to achieve our peace ambitions.
- Embed understanding of the links between climate change, peace and conflict into its wider work on climate change. It should ensure that its work on climate change is conflict sensitive, taking into account the ways in which the necessary economic transformation for responding to the climate crisis can embed or address structural drivers of conflict.
- Address the role of the UK and its Overseas Territories as facilitators of international corruption that can be a key driver of conflict in FCACs.
- The UK must get its own house in order. A programme of domestic reform should include:
- Delivering a beneficial ownership register for property; reforming and better resourcing Companies House, the National Crime Agency, Serious Fraud Office and HMRC; and transforming or abolishing Scottish limited partnerships;
- Rethinking and revising the Police, Crime, Courts and Sentencing Bill and the Elections Bill over restrictions to the right to protest and vote; and
- Protecting the UK’s soft power strength and avoiding undermining UK institutions so that the UK can act as a ‘Library of Democracy’, a democratic resource for the world.
- The UK should commit to ‘Doing Development Democratically’. This should include:
- Acting with ‘Democratic Sensitivity’ by understanding the impact of UK decisions on a country’s democracy, seeking to do no harm and instead supporting openness;
- Creating a ‘Democracy Premium’ of incentives for governments committed to democracy and human rights. Offering additional foreign aid, trade preferences, international development finance, security guarantees, debt relief, technical support, diplomatic engagement and access to international agreements;
- Responding to emerging opportunities for reform by delivering a ‘Democratic Surge’ of political, practical and financial support to buttress democratic openings; and
- Ensuring women’s political leadership plays a central role in the upcoming International Development Strategy and other FCDO policies.
- The FCDO should invest in UK election observation capacity, including a rapid response fund and push countries harder to deliver reforms on the basis of observation reports.
- Ambassadors and Ministers should speak out more on human rights abuses and use Magnitsky sanctions to go after abusers.
- The UK should support open data by creating ‘Digital Open Champions’ to drive reform at home and making it a key plank of its approach to aid and international regulatory bodies.
- Support the development, funding and mobilisation of the International Fund for Public Interest Media and the establishment of a Global Fund for the Rule of Law.
- Invest in UK democracy building capacity through a new Open Societies Fund, which could be delivered by a consortium of British NGOs and organisations (Team UK).
- Ensuring the UK has clear commitments to show leadership at the Summit for Democracy.
- Committing to a DDD approach – ideally over a long-term period and in collaboration with other international stakeholders – with strong strategic, evidence-based, and cross-governmental underpinnings;
- Investing in stand-alone democracy assistance programmes that strengthen bedrock democratic principles, institutions, practices, and skills, and ensure that any reforms are locally owned and led by a wide range of national stakeholders;
- Acting with ‘democratic sensitivity’, an understanding that any UK initiative conducted in or with a country will interact with its political systems and that such interaction may have positive or negative effects for its democratic health. The UK Government should take a deliberate and systematic approach to understanding the impacts of its actions.[24] It should seek to ensure that foreign assistance programmes at a minimum, do no harm to a country’s democracy, and ideally strengthens it by reinforcing local ownership, good governance, transparency, accountability, inclusion, and respect for human and democratic rights; and
- Creating a ‘Democracy Premium’ of clear and visible incentives for governments showing a demonstrated commitment to democracy and human rights, by offering additional foreign aid, trade preferences on more beneficial terms, enhanced access to international development finance, security guarantees, debt relief, technical support, diplomatic engagement and participation in sought after international and regional agreements (disincentives for backsliding should also be considered).[25]
- The 2015 International Development Committee report on Parliamentary Strengthening highlighted the lack of investment in ‘Westminster organisations’, such as WFD and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association UK, with most DFID governance funding going to large for-profits and multilateral organisations (which provide minimal soft power benefits to the UK).[47]
- The UK’s Electoral Commission, unlike most counterparts, has no legal mandate to engage internationally and the Local Government Association (LGA) scaled back its international work over the last decade.
- There has been no UK organisation providing significant levels of international election assistance since the bankruptcy in 2014 of Election Reform International Services (ERIS). Only in recent years has WFD begun to fill this void through targeted election support in contexts such as the DRC and the Western Balkans.
- The British Council’s 2019 Tailored Review explicitly recommended the Council de-prioritise its work on justice and governance, while offering no alternative British institution to fill the gap.[48]
- BBC Media Action had its five year, £90 million Programme Partnership Arrangement (PPA) closed in 2017 and replaced by a smaller accountable grant, despite the PPA being rated A+ or higher each year.
- The UK must get its own house in order. A programme of domestic reform should include:
- Delivering a beneficial ownership register for property; reforming and better resourcing Companies House, the National Crime Agency, Serious Fraud Office and HMRC; and transforming or abolishing Scottish limited partnerships;
- Rethinking and revising restrictions to the right to protest and vote in the Police, Crime, Courts and Sentencing Bill and the Elections Bill; and
- Protecting the UK’s soft power strength and avoiding undermining UK institutions so that the UK can act as a ‘Library of Democracy’, a democratic resource for the world.
- The UK should commit to ‘Doing Development Democratically. This should include:
- Acting with ‘Democratic Sensitivity’ by understanding the impact of UK decisions on a country’s democracy, seeking to do no harm and instead supporting openness;
- Creating a ‘Democracy Premium’ of incentives for governments committed to democracy and human rights. Offering additional foreign aid, trade preferences, international development finance, security guarantees, debt relief, technical support, diplomatic engagement and access to international agreements;
- Responding to emerging opportunities for reform by delivering a ‘Democratic Surge’ of political, practical and financial support to buttress democratic openings; and
- Ensuring women’s political leadership plays a central role in the upcoming International Development Strategy and other FCDO policies.
- The FCDO should invest in UK election observation capacity including a rapid response fund and push countries harder to deliver reforms on the basis of observation reports.
- Ambassadors and Ministers should speak out more on human rights abuses and use Magnitsky sanctions to go after abusers.
- The UK should support open data by creating ‘Digital Open Champions’ to drive reform at home and making it a key plank of its approach to aid and international regulatory bodies.
- Support the development, funding and mobilisation of the International Fund for Public Interest Media and the establishment of a Global Fund for the Rule of Law.
- Invest in UK democracy building capacity through a new Open Societies Fund, which could be delivered by a consortium of British NGOs and organisations (Team UK).
- Ensuring the UK has clear commitments to show leadership at the Summit for Democracy.
- Address widespread corruption at the heart of their states and take steps to reduce conflict of interest for state officials;
- End the use of anti-extremism legislation powers to target peaceful protestors, activists and opposition groups both at home and abroad and the use of torture in their penal and criminal justice systems;
- Stop targeting NGOs with punitive tax inspections and burdensome reporting requirements;
- Make it easier for independent and opposition parties to register and protect political activists from state harassment;
- Stop the continued harassment of independent trade unions and striking workers;
- Protect the ability of independent media, journalists and bloggers to operate. Measures to achieve this across the three countries should include: ending police and security service harassment, stopping the blocking of independent news websites, and further reforming libel laws and provisions on insulting the ‘honour and dignity’ of public officials;
- Improve data protection and privacy regulation and enforcement; and
- Tackle domestic violence, sexual harassment and abuse of the LGBTQ community.
- Ensure a focus on issues of corruption, hatred and impunity;
- Undertake a systemic review of international donor and IFI funded projects, including budget support, the use of consultancies and working with NGOs. It should look at both objectives and implementation, based on evidence and widespread local engagement;
- Find ways to empower fresh thinking and new voices, while giving partners the space and resources to adapt to local priorities;
- Increase human rights and governance conditionality in current and future EU and UK partnership agreements, debt relief, aid and new investment;
- Expand local language moderation by social media companies and strengthen reporting and redress mechanisms;
- Raise systemic problems and individual cases of abuse both in private and in public diplomacy, including parliamentary resolutions on human rights in the region and adding countries to international human rights watch lists;
- Deploy ‘Magnitsky’ personal Sanctions against those responsible for human rights abuses
- Use international mechanisms for tacking corruption and kleptocracy, including improved transparency requirements in Western jurisdictions, reform of ‘golden visas’, corruption focused ‘Magnitsky’ sanctions and other anti-corruption tools such as Unexplained Wealth Orders where appropriate; and
- Improve access to asylum and temporary refuge for activists at risk, including measures to assist family reunification where their relatives have been targeted for abuse.
- Үкіметтік емес ұйымдарды салықтық тексерумен және есептіліктің күрделі талаптарымен қудалауды тоқтату;
- Партияларды тіркеуді жеңілдету және саяси белсенділерді үкіметтің қудалауынан қорғау;
- Қылмыстық кодекстің 405 және 174-баптарына сәйкес экстремизмге қарсы заңнамалық өкілеттіктерді наразылық білдірушілерге немесе әлеуметтік желілерде оппозициялық тұрғыдағы ақпараттарға қолдау білдірушілер немесе таратушыларды қудалау үшін пайдалануды тоқтату;
- Тіркелмеген топтарға қойылатын шектеулерді алып тастау үшін қоғамдық шерулер туралы заңды одан ары қарай реформалау;
- Бейбіт шеруге қатысушыларға кеттлингті (қоршауға алу) полицейлік әдіс ретінде қолдануды тоқтату;
- Үкіметті жауапкершілікке шақыратын белсенділер мен блоггерлерге қатысты шешім шығаруда олардың болашақта жұмысын жалғастыруға кедергі келтіретін «бостандығын шектеу» жазасын қолдануды тоқтату;
- Тәуелсіз кәсіби ұйымдар мен ереуілге шығушы жұмысшыларға қатысты қудалауларды тоқтату;
- Сынау фактілерін азайту үшін қоғамдық ресми тұлғаларға жала жабатын және қадір-қасиетіне нұқсан келтіретін заңдарды қолданыстан шығару;
- Деректерді қорғау мен реттеуді және құпиялылықты сақтауды жақсарту; және
- Гендерлік теңдік құқығын қорғауды сақтай отырып, отбасылық зорлық-зомбылық пен жыныстық қысым көрсету туралы жаңа заңдарды дайындау туралы міндеттемелерді орындау.
- Жеке өмірде және қоғамдық өмірде де кездесетін жүйелі проблемалар мен жекелеген қиянат көрсету жағдайларын көтеру; және
- Сыбайлас жемқорлық пен клептократияға қарсы күрестің халықаралық тетіктерін, соның ішінде ашықтық талаптарын жақсарту, ‘golden visas’ («алтын виза») реформасын, Магнитский санкцияларын және қажет болған жағдайда иесі белгісіз байлықты анықтау сияқты сыбайлас жемқорлыққа қарсы құралдарды қолдануды зерттеу.
- БҰҰ-ның шарт органдарымен өзара әрекеттесу механизмдерін және БҰҰ Адам құқықтары жөніндегі кеңесінің арнайы рәсімдерін жетілдіру;
- Адам саудасы құрбандарының құқықтарын қамтамасыз ету;
- Мүмкіндігі шектеулі азаматтардың адам құқықтары;
- Әйелдерге қатысты дискриминацияны жою;
- Бірлестіктер бостандығы құқығы;
- Сөз бостандығына құқық беру;
- Адамның өмір сүруге және қоғамдық тәртіпке құқығы;
- Үкіметтік емес ұйымдармен өзара ықпалдасу тиімділігін арттыру;
- Қылмыстық сот төрелігі және мәжбүрлеп орындау, азаптау мен қатыгез қарым-қатынастың алдын алу саласындағы адам құқықтары.
Құқық қорғаушылардың қауіпсіздік жағдайын бақылау
Қадыр-Қасиет қоғамдық бірлестігі
«Қадыр-Қасиет» қоғамдық бірлестігі ай сайын Қазақстандағы құқық қорғаушыларға жасалған қысымға мониторинг жүргізеді. Мониторинг құқық қорғаушылардың сегіз санатына қатысты жүргізіледі: құқық қорғаушылар, азаматтық белсенділер, заңгерлер, журналистер, кәсіподақ белсенділері, діни бірлестіктер, саяси партиялар мен қоғам қайраткерлері.
Белсенділердің сегіз санатының әрқайсысы бір немесе бірнеше негізгі адам құқықтары мен бостандықтарын қалай жүзеге асыруға болатынын қолдайды, қорғайды, насихаттайды немесе көрсетуге тырысады. Бұл өз кезегінде қандай құқықтар мен бостандықтарға қауіп төнетіні туралы түсінік қалыптастырады. 2020 жыл бойы және 2021 жылдың алғашқы бес айында тәуекелге ұшыраған құқықтар бірдей болды, олар: бейбіт шерулер, бірлестік бостандығы және сөз бостандығы.
Тек 2020 жылдың өзінде 684 адамға қатысты 1,414 іс тіркелді. Олардың ішінде ең көп қауіп азаматтық қоғам белсенділеріне (482), журналистерге (64), саяси белсенділерге (48), құқық қорғаушыларға (45), адвокаттарға (24), діни бірлестіктердің белсенділеріне (10), қоғам қайраткерлеріне (6), кәсіподақ белсенділеріне қатысты (5) болды. 2021 жылдың бес айында 475 адамға қатысты 400 -ден астам қауіп болды.
Кезеңді талдау нәтижесінде келесідей тенденциялар айқындалды:
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- БҰҰ шарттық органдарымен өзара әрекеттесу механизмдері және БҰҰ-ның Адам құқықтары жөніндегі кеңесінің арнайы рәсімдері;
- Адам саудасы құрбандарының құқықтарын қамтамасыз ету;
- Мүмкіндігі шектеулі азаматтардың құқықтарын қорғау;
- Әйелдерге қатысты кемсітушілікті жою;
- Бірлестіктердің тәуелсіздік құқығы;
- Сөз бостандығы құқығы;
- Адамның өмір сүруге және қоғамдық тәртіпке құқығы;
- Үкіметтік емес ұйымдармен өзара әрекеттесу тиімділігін арттыру; және
- Қылмыстық сот төрелігі мен құқық қолдану саласындағы адам құқықтары, азаптау мен қатыгездіктің алдын алу. [2]
- Үкіметтік емес ұйымдарды салықтық тексерумен және есептіліктің күрделі талаптарымен қудалауды тоқтату;
- Партияларды тіркеуді жеңілдету және саяси белсенділерді үкіметтің қудалауынан қорғау;
- Қылмыстық кодекстің 405 және 174-баптарына сәйкес экстремизмге қарсы заңнамалық өкілеттіктерді наразылық білдірушілерге немесе әлеуметтік желілерде оппозициялық тұрғыдағы ақпараттарға қолдау білдірушілер немесе таратушыларды қудалау үшін пайдалануды тоқтату;
- Тіркелмеген топтарға қойылатын шектеулерді алып тастау үшін қоғамдық шерулер туралы заңды одан ары қарай реформалау;
- Бейбіт шеруге қатысушыларға кеттлингті (қоршауға алу) полицейлік әдіс ретінде қолдануды тоқтату;
- Үкіметті жауапкершілікке шақыратын белсенділер мен блоггерлерге қатысты шешім шығаруда олардың болашақта жұмысын жалғастыруға кедергі келтіретін «бостандығын шектеу» жазасын қолдануды тоқтату;
- Тәуелсіз кәсіби ұйымдар мен ереуілге шығушы жұмысшыларға қатысты қудалауларды тоқтату;
- Сынау фактілерін азайту үшін қоғамдық ресми тұлғаларға жала жабатын және қадір-қасиетіне нұқсан келтіретін заңдарды қолданыстан шығару;
- Деректерді қорғау мен реттеуді және құпиялылықты сақтауды жақсарту; және
- Гендерлік теңдік құқығын қорғауды сақтай отырып, отбасылық зорлық-зомбылық пен жыныстық қысым көрсету туралы жаңа заңдарды дайындау туралы міндеттемелерді орындау.
- Жеке өмірде және қоғамдық өмірде де кездесетін жүйелі проблемалар мен жекелеген қиянат көрсету жағдайларын көтеру; және
- Сыбайлас жемқорлық пен клептократияға қарсы күрестің халықаралық тетіктерін, соның ішінде ашықтық талаптарын жақсарту, ‘golden visas’ («алтын виза») реформасын, «Магнитский» санкцияларын және қажет болған жағдайда иесі белгісіз байлықты анықтау сияқты сыбайлас жемқорлыққа қарсы құралдарды қолдануды зерттеу.
- прекратить преследования критиков режима, проживающих в стране и за рубежом. Также прекратить применение пыток;
- отменить законы, которые запрещают "оскорбление" президента и государственных служащих;
- ограничить применение законодательства по противодействию экстремизму с целью противодействия его использования против политических конкурентов;
- развернуть борьбу с широкомасштабной коррупцией, которая расцвела в самом центре государства;
- создать настоящие независимые надзорные механизмы, которые будут использоваться для расследования злоупотреблений;
- прекратить медицинские осмотры, обязательные для каждого гражданина, который хочет вступить в брак, и тесты на ВИЧ, которые являются фактическим требованием для тех, кто устраивается на работу или поступает в образовательное учреждение;
- прекратить блокировку сайтов независимых новостных агентств;
- отменить систему прописки – системы регистрации и ограничений передвижений внутри страны;
- предоставить доступ к Генеральным планам городов и привлечь население к их разработке;
- реформировать и расширить процесс регистрации объектов, представляющих архитектурную и историческую ценность; и
- разработать меры по поощрению участия женщин в трудовой деятельности и их работе на государственных должностях, а также по борьбе с насилием в семье, сексуальными домогательствами и злоупотреблениями со стороны правоохранительных органов.
- пересмотреть инвестиции международных финансовых институтов и программы оказания помощи, которые предоставляют бюджетную поддержку правительству Таджикистана;
- применять санкции Магнитского и другие меры по борьбе с коррупцией против нарушителей;
- настоятельно рекомендовать операторам социальных сетей улучшить обработку жалоб и модерацию контента о Таджикистане;
- приостановить усилия ЕС по включению Таджикистана в схему "Генеральной системы преференций - плюс" (GSP +) и создать новое расширенное Соглашение о сотрудничестве и партнерстве;
- добавить Таджикистан в британский список приоритетных стран, где существуют проблемы в области прав человека; и
- улучшить доступ к убежищу и временному убежищу для граждан Таджикистана, которые находятся в группе риска, в том числе, применить меры по содействию воссоединению семей в тех случаях, когда родственники активистов подвергались жестокому обращению.
- положить конец преследованиям критиков режима как в стране, так и за рубежом, а также прекратить применять пытки в уголовно-исполнительной системе и системе уголовного правосудия;
- из Уголовного кодекса убрать статьи, в которых запрещается "оскорбление" президента и государственных служащих;
- ограничить применение законодательства по противодействию экстремизму до широко признанных насильственных групп и отдельных актов насилия, предотвращая тем самым его применение в отношении политических оппонентов;
- развернуть борьбу с широкомасштабной коррупцией, которая расцвела в самом центре государства, и принять меры по уменьшению конфликта интересов среди государственных чиновников;
- восстановить политический плюрализм через предоставление независимым партиям разрешения о регистрации и через снижение требований к сбору подписей, необходимых для выдвижения на государственные должности, а также через предоставление разрешения независимым кандидатам баллотироваться;
- реформировать офис омбудсмена и создать новые независимые механизмы для расследования пыток и злоупотреблений властью со стороны сотрудников полиции и служб безопасности;
- улучшить подготовку сотрудников следственных органов по вопросам проведения расследований случаев применения пыток и жестокого обращения, а также разработать комплексную программу реабилитации жертв пыток с особым акцентом на женщин;
- прекратить медицинские осмотры, обязательные для каждого гражданина, который хочет вступить в брак, и тесты на ВИЧ, которые являются фактическим требованием для тех, кто устраивается на работу или поступает в образовательное учреждение;
- прекратить блокировку сайтов независимых новостных агентств и гражданских групп;
- отменить систему прописки – системы регистрации и ограничений передвижений внутри страны;
- предоставить доступ к Генеральным планам Душанбе и других городов, а также привлечь население к их разработке;
- реформировать и расширить процесс регистрации объектов, представляющих архитектурную и историческую ценность, а также учесть мнение местного населения по этому вопросу;
- разработать меры по поощрению участия женщин в трудовой деятельности и их работе на государственных должностях; и
- решить проблему домашнего насилия, сексуальных домогательств и издевательств в отношении ЛГБТИ-сообщества.
- пересмотреть инвестиции международных финансовых институтов и программы оказания помощи, которые предоставляют бюджетную поддержку правительству Таджикистана;
- применять санкции Магнитского и другие меры по борьбе с коррупцией в отношении тех участников системы, кто несет ответственность за нарушение прав человека и взяточничество;
- обеспечить лучшую поддержку жертвам кампаний по троллингу, которые организует государство, а также настоятельно рекомендовать операторам социальных сетей улучшить модерацию контента на таджикском языке и упростить процедуру подачи жалоб;
- приостановить усилия ЕС по включению Таджикистана в схему "Генеральной системы преференций - плюс" (GSP +) и создать новое расширенное Соглашение о сотрудничестве и партнерстве;
- добавить Таджикистан в британский список приоритетных стран, где существуют проблемы в области прав человека; и
- улучшить доступ к убежищу и временному убежищу для граждан Таджикистана, которые находятся в группе риска, а также применить меры по содействию воссоединению семей в тех случаях, когда родственники активистов подвергались жестокому обращению.
- Stop targeting NGOs with punitive tax inspections and burdensome reporting requirements;
- Make it easier for parties to register and protect political activists from state harassment;
- End the use of anti-extremism legislation powers under Criminal Code Article 405 and Article 174 to target protestors or those liking or sharing opposition posts on social media;
- Further reform the law on public assembly to end restrictions on unregistered groups;
- Stop using kettling as a policing tactic for peaceful demonstrations;
- End the use of ‘freedom restrictions’ in sentencing that prevent activists and bloggers from continuing their work holding the Government to account;
- Stop the continued harassment of independent trade unions and striking workers;
- Remove laws on insulting the honour and dignity of public officials used to silence criticism;
- Improve data protection and privacy regulation and enforcement; and
- Deliver on commitments to produce new laws on domestic violence and sexual harassment, while retaining protections on the right to gender equality.
- Raise systemic problems and individual cases of abuse both in private and in public; and
- Examine the use of international mechanisms for tacking corruption and kleptocracy, including improved transparency requirements, reform of ‘golden visas’, Magnitsky sanctions and anti-corruption tools such as Unexplained Wealth Orders where appropriate.
- ‘Improving the mechanisms of interaction with the UN treaty bodies and special procedures of the UN Human Rights Council;
- Ensuring the rights of victims of human trafficking;
- Human rights of citizens with disabilities;
- The elimination of discrimination against women;
- The right to freedom of association;
- The right to freedom of expression;
- The human right to life and public order;
- Increasing the efficiency of interaction with non-governmental organisations; and
- Human rights in criminal justice and enforcement, and prevention of torture and ill-treatment.’
Monitoring the security situation of human rights defenders By Public Association Kadyr-Kasiyet The Public Association Kadyr-Kasiyet conducts monthly monitoring of the pressure against human rights defenders in Kazakhstan. Monitoring is conducted in relation to eight broad categories of human rights defenders: human rights defenders, civil activists, lawyers, journalists, activists of trade unions, religious associations, political parties, and public figures. Each of the eight categories of activists supports, strives to protect, promote, or demonstrates how one or more fundamental human rights and freedoms can be enjoyed. This, in turn, creates an idea of what rights and freedoms are under threat. Over the course of 2020, as well as first five months of 2021, the rights under threat have been the same: freedom of peaceful assembly, association, and freedom of expression. In 2020 alone, there were 1,414 threats recorded against 684 people. Of these, the largest number of threats were received against civil society activists (482), journalists (64), political activists (48), human rights defenders (45), lawyers (24), activists of religious associations (ten), public figures (six), trade union activists (five). For five months of 2021 , more than 400 threats were made against 475 people. Analysis of the period showed the following trends:
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In human rights challenges that apply both within and beyond the political sphere the need to improve oversight of the police and prison system remain areas of concern. Driving culture change in policing will need reform of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and measures to provide improved oversight through a new independent police complaints body. Another potential option could be devolving certain management functions to local government as part of Tokayev’s gradual election of local Akims, though country-wide oversight mechanisms would need to remain to limit abuses taking place away from the national spotlight. Torture and ill-treatment are still major problems with the case of Azamat Orazaly, killed in police custody after steeling livestock, highlighting the ongoing problems of ill-treatment by the police.[77] The increases in alleged torture cases reported through the Government’s National Preventive Mechanism against Torture (NPM) is an ongoing concern though it may also be a reflection of improved reporting through the mechanism, though punishment of abusers remains rare and often then lenient.[78] The impact of the pandemic has exacerbated long-standing concerns about harsh and unsanitary prison conditions and aggressive treatment by prison officers.[79] As in many countries of the region the Government’s Office of the Human Rights Ombudsman, whose duties include running the NPM, would benefit from greater capacity, increased powers to hold other arms of the state accountable and greater independence from the political system. Kazakhstan has shares a number of challenges with its many of its neighbours in that the rule of law is impinged by both overly powerful and unaccountable prosecutors office (as Aina Shormanbayeva and Amangeldy Shormanbayev note in their essay) and a judiciary that lacks independence from the state and politically connected interests, despite years of internationally backed reform programmes designed to improve their performance. USAID describes the situation as ‘while well-trained and qualified judges can be found in Kazakhstan, the judicial system overall continues to suffer from (i) lack of independence of the courts, (ii) insufficient training of judges, leading to questionable decisions, (iii) a perception of bias against foreigners in disputes with the state, and (iv) corruption.’[80] As with other parts of the state the personal dimension matters greatly, with protestors able to get reviews of their family member’s cases (for non-political offenses) through the use of single person pickets and other attention raising efforts.[81] In a recognition of some of the challenges the legal system faces, businesses in Nur-Sultan’s financial centre can circumvent the domestic legal system entirely by using an English language Common Law based system headed by 88 year old former UK Chief Justice Lord Woolf and other UK legal luminaries.[82] Some hopes for gradual improvements in the situation, particularly in non-political cases, have been vested in the implementation in July 2021 of the new Administrative Procedures Code that consolidates the country’s administrative law (including civil procedure) in one place for the first time, produced under guidance from the German Government through its Development agency GIZ and the German Foundation for International Legal Cooperation (IRZ).[83] There have also been rumours that the new head of the Supreme Court is keen to see judges act more independently but there is a long way to go before such claims are proved in practice. When it comes to emerging human rights challenges Anna Gussarova’s essay in this collection highlights concerns about both the capacity of the state and its intentions when it comes to protecting the vast quantities of new personal data that have been created by the shift to digital. In response Gussarova argues the case for new laws, improved training for officials and law enforcement and greater transparency to avoid the COVID period ushering in a more intrusive surveillance state on the Chinese model. Issues relating to China’s role in Kazakhstan’s economy and its perceived strategic threat have been a significant political and social mobilising force that triggered a harsh reaction from the Government of Kazakhstan, as noted above. However, these domestically focused China issues are not the only area where the subject of China has led to a local crackdown. The persecution of the 1.5 million ethnic Kazakhs in the Xinjiang region (as well as the Uyghurs) has been a running source of political tension, with local families having relatives in the China. Protest movements swelled in 2018 on this issue and the organisation Atajurt Eriktileri (Homeland Volunteers) became a key NGO involved in the global documentation efforts following the situation in Xinjiang.[84] The Government of Kazakhstan was caught between appeasing local sentiment and heavy pressure from Beijing whose economic and political influence had been growing (and growing angered by the anti-Chinese sentiment on several fronts). In 2018 2,500 ethnic Kazakhs were allowed to leave China for Kazakhstan as a small gesture aimed at mollifying the situation. In March 2019 however Kazakhstani officials raided the offices of Atajurt and arrested its founder Serikzhan Bilash, an ethnic Kazakh born in China, on the grounds that his criticism of the Chinese Government amounted to inciting ethnic tensions.[85] Bilash was forced to accept a ‘freedom freedom’ order agreeing to cease his activism to avoid a seven year jail term, despite the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention declaring that his prosecution breached international human rights law and criticised the Article 174 of the Criminal Code (on incitement to social, national, generic, racial, class or religious discord) as being overly broad and lacking legal certainty.[86] Faced with being unable to continue his work in Kazakhstan amid pressure both from the state, through new criminal cases, and people trying to take over his YouTube channel he fled to Turkey in the summer of 2020 and then on to the United States.[87] Activism on the ground in Kazakhstan on this issue is now more muted, though small groups of women continue to protest outside the Chinese consulate in Almaty, as the police are pre-emptively targeting other activists such as Baibolat Kunbolat (who leads an unregistered successor group to Bilash’s Atajurt) who continue to attempt protests to free their loved ones in China.[88] Questions of ethnic tension do not only relate to China or Russia but a bloody outburst of violence, spiralling from a traffic incident, in February 2020 highlighted tensions between local ethnic Kazakhs and members of the small Dungan minority group. The violence left nine Dungan’s and one Kazakh dead, many more people injured and many homes and businesses in the Dungan village of Masanchi burned or damaged.[89] The incident highlighted fears that growing nationalism amongst ethnic Kazakhs has the potential to destabilise the interethnic stability that Nazarbayev put at the centre of his political project. Labour rights As set out above and in the essay contribution by Mihra Rittmann the labour situation, after a decade of pressure on household incomes and structural change in the economy, remains challenging. After years of struggle and Government crackdowns in the years since Zhanaozen it has become harder than ever for oil workers to organise at scale to defend their rights. Mihra Rittmann’s essay documents the depressing history of the legal cases and convictions against union leaders Larisa Kharkova, Amin Eleusinov and Nurbek Kushakbaev that included ‘freedom restriction’ bans on being involved in trade union activity. The independent confederations previously led by Larisa Kharkova, firstly the Confederation of Free Trade Unions of Kazakhstan (KSPK) and then Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of the Republic of Kazakhstan (KNPRK), were ultimately liquidated due to bureaucratic harassment despite international pressure and local protests including hunger strikes by 400 union members in 2017.[90] The largest, state recognised and state sympathetic, trade union confederation the Federation of Trade Unions of Kazakhstan (FPRK) remains suspended by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) for failing to meet its standards on independence.[91] Erlan Baltabay, leader of the Industrial Trade Union of Fuel and Energy Workers (part of Kharkova’s KNPRK), has been in and out of jail since 2017 on a series of dubious charges, including a sentence in 2019 that combined an initial seven year jail term with a similar length ban on union activity, though after international pressure this was followed by a Presidential Pardon for the initial jail term and given a new five month conviction.[92] Though he was finally released in March 2020 his ‘freedom restriction’ on his activism remains until 2026.[93] Labour activist Erzhan Elshibayev remains in prison on a five year prison sentence after his conviction in 2019 on highly dubious charges that came in the wake of him leading protests against unemployment in Zhanaozen, which included criticisms of Nazarbayev that were subsequently shared online. This is despite a ruling of the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention calling for his immediate release and credible concerns that he is suffering abuse by prison guards.[94] Along with the stick wielded against union leaders, the carrot often deployed by the Government when trying to encourage workers to go along with state plans to ‘optimise’ the oil sector and privatise functions of oil service companies was an ‘early retirement’ scheme where they would get an upfront lump sum equivalent to 50 per cent of salary for five years. This would often be alongside support for them to retrain for other forms of work or to start their own businesses, as well as other inducements to prevent or end strike action in order to keep a lid on the potential for wider political unrest. In keeping with the Government’s philosophy of modernisation within the system they have offered training to trade unionists on how to negotiate their grievances through the labour code rather than resorting to strikes that they will continue to repress. The passage in 2020 of long-overdue amendments to the law on trade unions gave some degree of hope for the future if it were to be properly implemented. The changes, which came after repeated criticisms from the International Labour Organisation, would not force local or sectoral unions to become part of a national federation.[95] However, so far signs are not encouraging given that the Industrial Trade Union of Fuel and Energy Workers was suspended for six months in February 2021 on the basis of non-compliance with provisions of the old 2014 Trade Union law that had supposedly been removed in the 2020 amendments.[96] The lack of progress has led the ILO to continue its criticisms over Kazakhstan’s lack of implementation of its reforms at its June 2021 sitting of its Committee on the Application of Standards.[97] In line with their peers around the world workers in Kazakhstan’s gig economy, which has significantly expanded in recent years including through a significant rise in delivery services during the pandemic, have been organising to improve their pay and working conditions amid efforts by bosses to weaken them. Over the last few months couriers working for international companies Wolt and Glovo have engaged in public protests and unofficial strike action, while such protests were narrowly avoided at local firm Chocofood.[98] Attempts at unionising the couriers are ongoing despite risks of reprisals from both the companies and the Government. Media freedom Unsurprisingly, given the political tensions outlined above, Kazakhstan faces a number of media freedom challenges. The country ranks 155th out of 180 in the Reporters without Borders (RSF) 2021 World Press Freedom Index.[99] As with much else there is some degree of differentiation in the states reaction to outlets with links to the opposition and other organisations that are simply critical of it. Independent news websites such as Vlast.kz and Mediazona have been able to grow their readership and undertake hard hitting investigations, becoming more outspoken in the Tokayev-era and testing the limits of the levels of criticism the system will allow. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is able to operate in the country, and is afforded some protection given US Government advocacy on its behalf, but its journalists are facing pressure when covering protests and other contentious issues. Instagram (the country’s most used social media platform) and YouTube are increasingly home to critical voices, albeit ones that often stay focused on social and economic rather than party political challenges.[100] Traditional media is much more restricted with many opposition and independent newspapers having been forced to close. Independent TV channels were squeezed off the airwaves in the late 90s after a massive hike in licensing fees and tighter bureaucratic pressure on dissenting voices.[101] After a cat and mouse game with the authorities lasting between 2002-2016 the last iterations and offshoots of Kazakhstan’s highest profile opposition-aligned newspaper Respublica were forced to close and a number of its journalists were jailed.[102] The few independent minded print outlets that remain, such as Uralskaya Nedelya in Oral and Dat in Almaty, continue to face heavy pressure. For example, Lukpan Akhmedyarov, editor of Uralskaya Nedelya, faced threats earliest this year for reporting a leak from a high profile local corruption trial.[103] Akmedyarov had previously been heavily assaulted in 2012 for his work in exposing another corruption scandal. Officials have regularly denied accreditation to independent journalists, limiting their ability to cover official government announcements and the rules have now been formally tightened requiring journalists to be pared with an official chaperone (‘a host’) when covering government events.[104] Similarly media workers have repeatedly been arrested or harassed whilst covering unsanctioned protests over recent years. Overall the Justice for Journalists Foundation recorded 24 incidents of physical attacks or threats of violence against Kazakhstani media workers in 2020, as well as a far broader range of online and bureaucratic harassment.[105] Galiya Azhenova’s essay draws attention to a number of these incidents. There are warning signs ahead for Kazakhstan’s online media. The laws on spreading misinformation during COVID have been used to chill reporting and particularly activism from online commentators with political connections.[106] The case of Temirlan Ensebek, a satirist who was detained by police and forced to close down (on charges of disinformation) his Instagram channel over parodies featuring Nazarbayev, is a reminder that while the criminal offense of defamation (slander) has been recently removed from the Criminal Code, laws against ‘insult’ (the ‘humiliation of honour and dignity of other person’) and in particular insult against government officials remain (including specific provisions, Article 373, relating to Nazarbayev as leader of the nation and his family that could have led to up to three years in prison for Ensebek).[107] Galiya Azhenova also points how the transfer of defamation from the criminal to administrative code has left local police trying to judge complex issues of free speech and therefore instigating lots of administrative cases for criticism of local officials. The Ministry of Information is preparing a new draft law on digital media (on Mass Communications) that is believed to be likely to include a definition of ‘internet resources’ thereby extending a number of different restrictions that apply in print and on television to online platforms as a way of curbing its current relative freedoms. Cashing in Kazakhstan’s resource wealth have enabled many of those with access to political influence to become very wealthy, amid the scramble for oil in the mid-1990s and the subsequent boom years, perhaps few more so than First President Nazarbayev’s own family. Gauging the true extent of the family’s wealth is a difficult task but a recent investigation by RFE/RL identified at least $785 million in European and US real estate purchases made by Nazarbayev’s family members and their in-laws in six countries over a 20-year span.[108] One of the first major public debates about corruption in the ruling elite was the ‘Kazakhgate’ scandal that came to public attention in 2002 and 2003 with US Prosecutors alleging that around $80 million in funds from US oil companies were diverted into Swiss bank accounts for the use by President Nazarbayev and other leading officials in order to help win contracts on the Tengiz oilfields. The US businessman (and Counsellor to the President of Kazakhstan) James Giffen who was at the heart of the case would eventually serve no jail time after most of the charges were dropped, not because the financial transfers did not take place, but on the basis that there were reasonable grounds to believe he had been working with the CIA at the time of the affair.[109] Kazakhstani journalists who covered the story were less fortunate with one of the main investigators of the case, Sergei Duvanov, subsequently jailed on what were widely seen as fabricated rape charges and pressure was put on newspapers such Respublica that had covered the story.[110] While, as in Kazakhgate, allegations would occasionally touch Nazarbayev himself (including recently when businessman Bulat Utemuratov, alleged by US diplomats to be his financial fixer, was swept up in the ongoing saga over retrieving BTA assets from Ablyazov, with three billion USD in assets frozen by the UK courts) more often than not public discussion around the family’s wealth centred on his children and in particular the husbands of the oldest two daughters.[111] Dinara Kulibayeva and her husband Timur Kulibayev, a businessman who held many senior positions in state affiliated bodies (including the sovereign wealth fund Samruk-Kazyna) and throughout the energy industry (including sitting on the board of Russian energy giant Gazprom), have become the second richest people in Kazakhstan.[112] The Kulibayevs are known to have substantial holdings in the UK, including the former home of Prince Andrew (Sunninghill Park), a connection that would periodically be raised in the British press over allegations that the Prince did favours for Kulibayev whilst serving as UK trade envoy and over his closeness to Kulibayev’s former mistress Goga Ashkenazi.[113] More recently, in December 2000, the Financial Times alleged Kulibayev’s involvement in a scheme to siphon millions of dollars from a Chinese pipeline contract.[114] Nazarbayev’s oldest daughter Dariga Nazarbayeva has had the highest profile presence in Kazakhstan’s public life over the years and had been often touted as a potential successor to her father. After a media ownership career in the 1990s, she formally entered politics in 2003 with her own ‘Azar’ party that was elected to the Mazhilis in 2004. Her party would formally merge with her father’s Otan party to create Nur-Otan, the ruling party of Kazakhstan to this day. After sitting out the next Parliament she returned in 2012 on the Nur-Otan list, becoming the Nur-Otan Parliamentary leader and Deputy Chair of the Mazhilis from 2014-15 before becoming Deputy Prime Minister for a year and then joining the Senate in 2016. Upon Tokayev’s assentation to the Presidency Dariga would become Chair of the Senate and the formal next in line to the Presidency. Until 2007 she was married to the controversial oligarch Rakhat Aliyev, whose notorious reputation has repeatedly singed the credibility of the system over his financial dealings and links to criminality. Aliyev would ultimately be carted-off to Vienna as Ambassador to Austria and the OSCE as claims of his involvement in the murders of two bankers began to swirl.[115] He would ultimately be charged and sentenced in absentia in Kazakhstan for those crimes, alongside allegations of a further murder of opposition politician Altynbek Sarsenbayev, the suspicious death of his former mistress Anastasiya Novikova, as well as allegations of torture, kidnapping and evidence of money-laundering. Aliyev would ultimately be found hanged in an Austrian prison in 2015 while awaiting trial over the murder of the bankers.[116] The link to Aliyev was of later relevance to a high profile, and ultimately unsuccessful, case by the UK National Crime Agency that sought to use an Unexplained Wealth Order to freeze ownership of three UK homes worth £80 million belonging to Nazarbayeva and her family. The National Crime Agency had argued that the properties came from Aliyev’s ill-gotten gains but the court sided with Nazarbayeva’s position that these assets had been procured with her own money.[117] However, in the wake of the trial she was surprisingly removed as Chair of the Senate (and from the line of Presidential succession) by President Tokayev in May 2020 and it remains unclear whether this was due to the public impact of the revelations of her wealth or an internal power struggle that led to her removal. Later in 2020 further revelations of the extent of Nazarbayeva’s UK property holdings were revealed when she was found to be the owner of £140 million worth of buildings on Baker Street in Central London.[118] Despite these further revelations about the size of her personal wealth she made her return to Kazakhstani politics in January 2021 by returning to the Mazhils as a Nur-Otan parliamentarian.[119] As the situation of Nazarbayev’s daughters and indeed Muktar Ablyazov shown above illustrate the UK is a major external venue for the investments and entanglements of Kazakhstan’s elite. Recent analysis has shown that Kazakhstan was one of the major beneficiaries of the UK’s Tier one Investor visa system (or Golden Visas as they are known) with 205 Kazakhstani’s gain UK residency in the period 2008-2015 (the fifth most common country and the largest per capita excluding microstates).[120] While luxury property market may act as a store of wealth from Kazakhstan it is worth noting that according to the UK Government’s most recent figures Foreign Direct Investment from Kazakhstan into the UK totalled less than one million pounds in 2019.[121] The former first family are far from only people with political connections in being able to make their fortunes in post-Independence Kazakhstan. Just to cite one indicative example, RFE/RL recently exposed how former high ranking officials in the Education Ministry, particularly the family of Bakhytzhan Zhumagulov, own most of Kazakhstan’s for-profit colleges and universities.[122] Access to political influence over sectors of the economy have led to opportunities for officials, their families and associates to enrich themselves. Religion As with so many issues in Kazakhstan the state’s approach to religion is rooted in its desire to main stability, both between its citizenry and of the system as a whole. Kazakhstan is a predominantly Muslim Country (72 per cent) but given the residual size of its Russian population Orthodox Christianity retains a significant toe hold (23 per cent) alongside other religions linked to smaller minority groups.[123] So as a result of the post-Independence demographics and Nazarbayev’s own vision of the nation, Islamic identity played less of a role than in its Central Asian neighbours as a building block of Kazakhstani national identity (as indeed did the initial reticence to conflate Kazakhstan’s nation-building project with ethnic Kazakh identity, though it would be infused with Kazakh folk symbolism such as the Samruk bird). As such Kazakhstan’s constitution does not make any reference to Islam or any other specific religion, retaining its secular status.[124] Kazakhstan has used this approach religion as a key part of its nation branding not only internally but on the world stage. Since 2003, Kazakhstan has hosted a Nazarbayev-centric interfaith initiative known as the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions that brings together senior figures from larger ‘mainstream’ or ‘traditional’ denominations of world religions.[125] It preaches mutual toleration and understanding for the mainstream institutions that the Government of Kazakhstan believes it can do business with at a domestic level and use strategically at an international level to promote an image of tolerance and peace, as well as a role for Kazakhstan (and Nazarbayev personally) as a convenor to promote those goals. For religious groups that fall outside the ‘traditional mainstream’ however it can be much tougher. As a result Kazakhstan can find itself lauded by international actors for promoting religious tolerance, while simultaneously being recommended for placement on the State Department’s Special Watch List for Religious Freedom by the US Commission on International Religious Freedom (albeit the State Department has not given yet it this designation).[126] The challenge in Kazakhstan, as in the secular world, is with the issue of unregistered groups where the state makes it hard to register and cracks down on anything that is not. Kazakhstan’s 2011 Law on Religious Activity and Religious Associations set stringent requirements on what types of groups could be registered and how, with a minimum of 50 Kazakhstani citizens required to set up a local religious organisation through to at least 5,000 members (with 300 in each oblast as well as in Almaty, Nur-Sultan and Shymkent) to set up a national organisation.[127] There are also heavy restrictions on proselytisation, such as requirements that religious materials can only be distributed on the premises of a registered religious groups, which have been seen to target Jehovah’s Witnesses and evangelical protestant groups. There has, however, been a downward trend in the number of administrative offenses recorded each year in relation to this law, with 139 cases reported in 2020 down from 284 in 2017 according to the religious freedom organisation Forum 18.[128] The newly independent state built on the legacy of Soviet religious management and registration by creating the Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan under which all registered mosques are affiliated. Wearing of the hijab in schools is restricted through the widespread application of school uniform policy preventing the wearing of religious symbols.[129] As elsewhere in the region concerns about religious radicalisation stem both from concerns about the risk of terrorism and from the growth of groups that fall outside of the state’s control. Non-violent extremist groups such as Tablighi Jamaat and Hizb ut-Tahrir are banned and the use of the term ‘extremist’ has been used widely in arrests of government critics (both religious and secular) without proven ties to violence. Women’s and LGBTQ+ rights In terms of women’s political leadership in Kazakhstan’s the OSCE note that ‘women held only one out of 17 (regional) Akim and two out of 22 ministerial positions’ at the time of the January 2021 Parliamentary elections. Despite the introduction of a 30 per cent quota the number of women in the newly elected Mazhilis actually fell from 29 to 28 seats.[130] As noted above and in the essay by Dr Khalida Azhigulova efforts to introduce new legislation focused on improving women’s rights have met with push back from socially conservative forces. At the moment the legislation on tackling domestic violence in Kazakhstan is weak, with cases usually dealt with under the administrative code (for minor offenses) rather than Criminal Code (which is used only for severe assaults), leading to a situation where the penalties for dropping a cigarette on the street (classified as petty hooliganism) are harsher than for most domestic violence cases.[131] In 2020, 45,000 cases of domestic violence were initiated through the administrative code but is far lower than the true extent of the situation due to under reporting and even then more than 60 per cent of the cases are withdrawn before a ruling is made due to pressure for family reconciliation.[132] It is positive that President Tokayev has recommitted to a law on domestic violence as part of his recent Human Rights Decree but the details remain likely to be keenly fought over, such as whether ‘minor beatings’ would become a criminal offense or not.[133] Attempts to bring in laws against sexual harassment have stalled under pressure from the similar social conservative forces. International Women’s day (March 8th) has often been a flashpoint between women’s rights activists and socially conservative forces across Central Asia. In a positive step in 2021 the Women’s March was given permission by the city authorities in Almaty for the first time and between 500-1,000 women’s rights activists were able to protest in what has been described as Kazakhstan’s largest women’s march.[134] However, the state remains reticent to allow groups undertaking more ‘radical’ advocacy on both women’s and LGBTQ+ rights to get a hearing. The group Feminata has been repeatedly denied official registration and its leaders were recently attacked by unknown assailants in Shymkent whilst holding a private meeting on gender equality before being detained by police ‘for their own safety’.[135] More broadly for LGBTQ+ Kazakhstanis the situation remains tough. Homosexuality was decriminalised in 1998 (unlike in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan) but the legal frameworks to protect the community are piecemeal (based on generalised anti-discrimination provisions in the Constitution) and cultural attitudes remain deeply hostile in large segments of society.[136] In 2015 and 2018-19 attempts were made by the Government to introduce a Russian style law on ‘propaganda’ about ‘non-traditional sexual orientation’ that would have restricted the ability for members of the LGBTQ+ community and rights activists to speak openly about their concerns.[137] These efforts were pushed back after both local campaigning and pressure from Kazakhstan’s western partners, but there are concerns efforts will be made in Parliament to try again in the near future. Aigerim Kamidola’s essay highlights current measures to past a draft Law ‘On the Introduction of Amendments and Additions to Some Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Family and Gender Policy’ that would remove the term gender from existing the anti-discrimination law and replace it with ‘equality on the basis of sex’. This move taps into narratives that have seen the concept of gender stigmatised both as a general label attached to LGBTQ+ and Women’s rights (‘gender ideology’) by illiberal or anti-Western ‘anti-Gender’ campaigners across the post-Soviet space, as well as being used in a more narrow sense as to specific debates around rights and protections for transgender people. International influence Kazakhstan has so far successfully pursued a multi-vector foreign policy that has enabled it to negotiate tricky regional relationships and project a positive image of the country on the world stage Kazakhstan. The country has remained part of the Moscow-oriented post-Soviet regional infrastructure such as the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Collective Security Treaty Organisation and more recently the Eurasian Economic Union. Despite the somewhat fraught domestic political challenges China has been steadily growing its influence with over 18 per cent of Kazakhstan’s total trade and almost five per cent of its total inward investment, as well as a deepening security relationship that includes membership of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[138] For a long-time under President Nazarbayev Kazakhstan assumed a regional leadership role within and to some extent on behalf of Central Asia, though in recent years Uzbekistan’s President Mirziyoyev has ended his country’s virtual isolation and the regional balance is somewhat more evenly split between the region’s most populous country (Uzbekistan) and its richest (Kazakhstan). At the same time, Kazakhstan has dramatically deepened its economic ties to the West as touched on above. The EU is Kazakhstan’s largest external trading partner, accounting for 30 per cent of its external trade, and the country is the first in Central Asia to conclude a new Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (EPCA) which came into force in 2020. The EU institutions have tended to raise human rights and governance issues within the confines of its formal human rights dialogue processes, though the European Parliament has often been more vocal on these issues despite ratifying the EPCA.[139] The OSCE has always been an important part of Kazakhstan’s diplomatic initiatives with Kazakhstan holding the chairmanship in office in 2010 and using the opportunity to host a rare summit of the organisation’s heads of Government (it was the last time such an event has taken place, with the next most recent OSCE summit taking place in 1999).[140] As a sign of Kazakhstan’s continuing involvement Former Foreign Minister Kairat Abdrakhmanov became the High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM) in December 2020. Other initiatives to put Kazakhstan (and particularly Astana, now Nur-Sultan) on the map include the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions as noted above and the ‘Astana process’ which has seen Kazakhstan host peace talks over the Syrian crisis since 2017. Kazakhstan’s position as a relatively prosperous, well connected country with a broad base to its international relations means that there are some opportunities for international influence over the trajectory of its performance on human rights issues but these should not be overstated. Its leadership, and particularly a number of younger generation of officials and leaders, care about Kazakhstan’s reputation, something it has worked hard to promote internationally as a good partner and modern country. There is an ongoing desire from Kazakhstan to continue to receive foreign investment and support, particularly as the world transitions away from fossil fuels. However, it is far from clear that these considerations outweigh the desire to maintain the political and economic status quo, particularly amongst the upper echelons of the state and particularly the security apparatus. Image by Jussi Toivanen under (CC). [1] Francisco Olmos, State-building myths in Central Asia, Foreign Policy Centre, October 2019, https://fpc.org.uk/state-building-myths-in-central-asia/ [2] Wudan Yan, The nuclear sins of the Soviet Union live on in Kazakhstan, Nature, April 2019, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01034-8 [3] Institute of Demography named after A.G. Vishnevsk National Research University Higher School of Economics, 1989 All-Union Population Census National composition of the population in the republics of the USSR: Kazakh SSR, http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=5 [4] Alimana Zhanmukanova, Is Northern Kazakhstan at Risk to Russia?, The Diplomat, April 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/is-northern-kazakhstan-at-risk-to-russia/; RFE/RL, A Tale Of Russian Separatism In Kazakhstan, August 2014, https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-kazakhstan-russian-separatism/25479571.html [5] CIA World Factbook, Kazakhstan, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/#people-and-society [6] Alimana Zhanmukanova, Is Northern Kazakhstan at Risk to Russia?, The Diplomat, April 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/04/is-northern-kazakhstan-at-risk-to-russia/ [7] The World Bank, GDP growth (annual per cent) – Kazakhstan, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=KZ [8] IEA, Kazakhstan energy profile, April 2020, https://www.iea.org/reports/kazakhstan-energy-profile [9] Maurizio Totaro, Collecting beetles in Zhanaozen: Kazakhstan’s hidden tragedy, openDemocracy, May 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/yrysbek-dabei-zhanaozen-kazakhstans-hidden-tragedy/ [10] Abdujalil Abdurasulov, Kazakhstan's land reform protests explained, April 2016, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-36163103 [11] UN Human Rights, “Kazakhstan should release rights defenders Bokayev and Ayan” – UN experts, December 2016, https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20990&LangID=E; Sarah McCloskey, Why Kazakh political prisoner Max Bokayev should be released, openDemocracy, April 2019, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/why-kazakh-political-prisoner-max-bokayev-should-be-released/ [12] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Cracks Down on Weekend Protests, The Diplomat, May 2016 https://thediplomat.com/2016/05/kazakhstan-cracks-down-on-weekend-protests/; Eurasianet, Kazakhstan Takes Autocratic Turn With Mass Detentions, May 2016, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-takes-autocratic-turn-mass-detentions [13] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Bans Sale of Agricultural Lands to Foreigners, The Diplomat, May 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/05/kazakhstan-bans-sale-of-agricultural-lands-to-foreigners/ [14] David Trilling, China’s water use threatens Kazakhstan’s other big lake, Eurasianet, March 2021, https://www.intellinews.com/china-s-water-use-threatens-kazakhstan-s-other-big-lake-207026/ [15] RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Dozens Of Mothers Protest In Kazakhstan Demanding Government Support, February 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/dozens-of-mothers-protest-in-kazakhstan-demanding-government-support/29759290.html; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Angry Kazakh Mothers Demand Reforms After Five Girls Die In House Fire, February 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/angry-kazakh-mothers-demand-reforms-after-five-girls-die-in-house-fire/29771963.html [16] The move also came 30 years after his elevation to become First Secretary of the Communist party. [17] Paolo Sorbello, Kazakhstan celebrates its leader with two more statues, Global Voices, July 2021, https://globalvoices.org/2021/07/06/kazakhstan-celebrates-its-leader-with-two-more-statues/; Andrew Roth, Oliver Stone derided for film about ‘modest’ former Kazakh president, The Guardian, July 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/11/oliver-stone-film-ex-kazakhstan-president-nursultan-nazabayev; Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan’s golden man gets the Oliver Stone treatment, Eurasianet, July 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-golden-man-gets-the-oliver-stone-treatment [18] Catherine Putz, Kazakhstan Remains Nazarbayev’s State, The Diplomat, October 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/10/kazakhstan-remains-nazarbayevs-state/ [19] Global Monitoring, COVID-19 pandemic – Kazakhstan, https://global-monitoring.com/gm/page/events/epidemic-0001994.sOJcVU487awH.html?lang=en [20] World Health Organisation, COVID-19 Kazakhstan, https://covid19.who.int/region/euro/country/kz [21] Qazaqstan TV News, Doctors of the capital showed the situation inside the hospital, July 2021, https://qazaqstan.tv/news/143209/ [22] William Tompson Twitter post, Twitter, April 2021, https://twitter.com/william_tompson/status/1385102759117180931?s=20; Dmitriy Mazorenko, Dariya Zheniskhan and Almas Kaisar, Kazakhstan is caught in a vicious cycle of debt. The pandemic has only made it worse, openDemocracy, June 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/kazakhstan-caught-vicious-cycle-debt-pandemic-has-only-made-it-worse/ [23] Bagdat Asylbek, Diagnosis: "devastation". Kazakhstani health care and pandemic, Radio Azattyq, August 2020, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-coronavirus-national-health-system/30768857.html; Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Former health minister arrested, Eurasianet, November 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-former-health-minister-arrested [24] Bakhytzhan Toregozhina, Pandemic and Human Rights: Only Repressive System is Functioning in Kazakhstan, Cabar Central Asia, July 2020, https://cabar.asia/en/pandemic-and-human-rights-only-repressive-system-is-functioning-in-kazakhstan?pdf=36177. Though Kazakhstan already had laws in place against ‘disinformation’ that were able to be used. [25] Madina Aimbetova, Freedom of expression in Kazakhstan still a distant prospect, says prosecuted activist, Global Voices, July 2020, https://globalvoices.org/2020/07/15/freedom-of-expression-in-kazakhstan-still-a-distant-prospect-says-jailed-activist/ [26] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expression during Covid-19; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html; Asim Kashgarian, Rights Groups: Kazakh Authorities Use Coronavirus to Smother Political Dissent, VOA News, November 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/rights-groups-kazakh-authorities-use-coronavirus-smother-political-dissent [27] Jeff Bell, Twitter post, Twitter, January 2021, https://twitter.com/ImJeffBell/status/1347934173433106435?s=20 [28] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Authorities use pandemic to quash protests, Eurasianet, March 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-authorities-use-pandemic-to-quash-protests [29] DW, Kazakhstan abolishes death penalty, January 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty/a-56117176 [30] Radio Azattyk, Direct elections of rural akims: the campaign has not started yet, but obstacles are already being raised, May 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31240547.html [31]OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Parliamentary Elections, January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850 [32] OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, Parliamentary Elections, January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850 [33] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Civil society complains of pre-election pressure, Eurasianet, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-civil-society-complains-of-pre-election-pressure [34] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Nervous authorities keep election observers at arm’s length, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nervous-authorities-keep-election-observers-at-arms-length [35] The Economist, All the parties in Kazakhstan’s election support the government, January 2021, https://www.economist.com/asia/2021/01/09/all-the-parties-in-kazakhstans-election-support-the-government [36] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Nervous authorities keep election observers at arm’s length, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nervous-authorities-keep-election-observers-at-arms-length [37] RFE/RL, Kazakh Opposition Figure Calls On Supporters To Vote To Expose 'Opposition' Party, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-opposition-figure-calls-on-supporters-to-vote-to-expose-opposition-party/30956477.html [38] For a good summation of the history of the history of this case see the chapter in Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [39] Ibid. [40] Hogan Lovells, Hogan Lovells Secures Major High Court Victory for BTA Bank in US $6bn Fraud Case, August 2018, https://www.hoganlovells.com/en/news/hogan-lovells-secures-major-high-court-victory-for-bta-bank-in-us-6bn-fraud-case [41] Rupert Neate, Arrest warrant for Kazakh billionaire accused of one of world's biggest frauds, The Guardian, February 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/feb/16/arrest-warrant-kazakh-billionaire-mukhtar-ablyazov [42] RFE/RL Kazakh Servicem Italian Officials Imprisoned Over 'Unlawful' Deportation Of Former Kazakh Banker's Wife, Daughter, October 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/30895138.html [43] Dmitry Solovyov and Robin Paxton, Kazakhstan in move to ban opposition parties and media, Reuters, November 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-kazakhstan-opposition-idUKBRE8AK0SE20121121; Human Rights House, Kazakhstan opposition leader sentenced in politically motivated trial, October 2012, https://humanrightshouse.org/articles/kazakhstan-opposition-leader-sentenced-in-politically-motivated-trial/ [44] Vladimir Kozlov, https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Vladimir_Kozlov_(politician)# [45] Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan is throttling the internet when the president’s rival is online, Eurasianet, July 2018, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-is-throttling-the-internet-when-the-presidents-rival-is-online [46] Manshuk Asautay, Activists demanded the removal of the "Street Party" from the list of banned organisations, Radio Azattyq, https://www.azattyq.org/a/31318167.htm;l RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Kazakh Activists Start Hunger Strike To Protest Opposition Party Ban, June 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-hunger-strike-koshe-party/31318852.html [47] RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Hundreds Rally In Kazakhstan To Protest Growing Chinese Influence, March 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-almaty-anti-china-rally-arrests/31172559.html; Joanna Lillis, Nazarbayev ally wins big in Kazakhstan election after hundreds arrested, The Guardian, June 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/hundreds-arrested-as-kazakhs-protest-against-rigged-election; See footage here via Maxim Eristavi’s Twitter feed: https://twitter.com/MaximEristavi/status/1348182003351511042?s=20 [48] Andrey Grishin, When Kazakhstan Will Stop Making “Extremists” of Ordinary People? CABAR Central Asia, March 2020, https://cabar.asia/en/when-kazakhstan-will-stop-making-extremists-of-ordinary-people; Legislationline, Criminal codes – Kazakhstan, https://www.legislationline.org/documents/section/criminal-codes/country/21/Kazakhstan/show; Article 405 of the Criminal Code states - ‘Organisation and participation in activity of public or religious association or other organisation after court decision on prohibition of their activity or liquidation in connection with carrying out by them the extremism or terrorism’; Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Crackdown on Government Critics, July 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/07/kazakhstan-crackdown-government-critics; From Our Member Dignity – Kadyr-kassiyet (KK) from Kazakhstan and Bir Duino from Kyrgyzstan – Anti-Extremist Policies in Russia, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan. Comparative Review, Forum-Asia, April 2020 https://www.forum-asia.org/?p=31521 [49] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Crackdown on Government Critics, July 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/07/07/kazakhstan-crackdown-government-critics; European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html [50] For example both groups chose to protest on Capital day this year, despite meeting at different times both were swept up in the same rounds of ‘preventative’ arrests. See Joanna Lillis, Twitter post, Twitter, July 2021, https://twitter.com/joannalillis/status/1412272738547421187?s=20 [51] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Journalist Convicted Of Money Laundering, Walks Free In ‘Huge Victory’, September 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-journalist-mamai-convicted-money-laundering-ablyazov/28721897.html [52] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Activist Demands Registration Of Party Before Parliamentary Vote, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-demands-registration-of-party-before-parliamentary-vote/30942877.html; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Opposition Group Allowed To Hold Rally Challenging Upcoming Polls, November 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-opposition-group-allowed-to-hold-rally-challenging-upcoming-polls/30933581.html; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Twitter post, Twitter, November 2020, https://twitter.com/RFERL/status/1327704146221412352 [53] Bruce Pannier, Hectic Times in Kazakhstan Recently, And For The Foreseeable Future, RFE/RL, June 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/hectic-times-in-kazakhstan-recently-and-for-the-foreseeable-future/30000862.html [54] Colleen Wood, New Civic Movement Urges Kazakhstan to ‘Wake Up’, The Diplomat, June 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/new-civic-movement-urges-kazakhstan-to-wake-up/ [55] Medet Yesimkhanov, Pavel Bannikov and Asem Zhapisheva, Dossier: Who is behind lobbying for the abolitions of laws and the spread of conspiracy theories in Kazakhstan, Factcheck.kz, February 2021, https://factcheck.kz/socium/dose-kto-stoit-za-lobbirovaniem-otmeny-zakonov-i-rasprostraneniem-konspirologii-v-kazaxstane/; Medet Yesimkhanov, Dossier: CitizenGO – an ultra-conservative lobby disguised as a petition site, Factcheck.kz, November 2020, https://factcheck.kz/v-mire/dose-citizengo-ultrakonservativnoe-lobbi-pod-vidom-ploshhadki-dlya-peticij/ [56] Mihra Rittmann, Kazakhstan’s ‘Reformed’ Protest Law Hardly an Improvement, Human Rights Watch, May 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/28/kazakhstans-reformed-protest-law-hardly-improvement [57] Legislation Online, On the procedure for organising and holding peaceful assemblies in the Republic of Kazakhstan, May 2020, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8924/file/Kazakhstan%20-%20Peaceful%20assemblies%20EN.pdf [58] Mihra Rittmann, Kazakhstan’s ‘Reformed’ Protest Law Hardly an Improvement, Human Rights Watch, May 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/28/kazakhstans-reformed-protest-law-hardly-improvement [59] Human Rights Council, Rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, United Nations General Assembly, May 2019, https://undocs.org/en/A/HRC/41/41 [60] Indymedia UK, A brief history of “kettling”, November 2010, https://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2010/11/468945.html As described by the OSCE, kettling (or corralling) is a ‘strategy of crowd control that relies on containment […], where law enforcement officials encircle and enclose a section of assembly participants.’ [61] Paul Lewis, Human rights court backs police ‘kettling’, The Guardian, March 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/mar/15/human-rights-court-police-kettling [62] Freedom House, Countries and Territories, https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores?sort=desc&order=Total%20Score%20and%20Status [63] Front Line Defenders, Authorities pressurize human rights groups – Kazakhstan, December 2020, https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/ru/statement-report/human-rights-groups-under-pressure-kazakhstan?fbclid=IwAR2g_4jdv1OeFfSHHc92lmuVz11RnJxNYdFbl2FqEggOm8gpRlnH7A-_vjg; ACCA, Kazakhstan may suspend the activities of the International Journalism Center, January 2021, https://acca.media/en/kazakhstan-may-suspend-the-activities-of-the-international-journalism-center/; Almaz Kumenov, Kazakhstan: Government’s war on NGOs claims more victims, Eurasianet, January 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-governments-war-on-ngos-claims-more-victims [64] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Authorities Drop Changes Against NGOs After Outcry, February 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-authorities-drop-charges-ngos-outcry/31087863.html; Bagdat Asylbek, Human Rights Bureau and NGO Echo won lawsuits against tax service, Radio Azattyq, April 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31190073.html [65] OMCT, Harassment on the part of the Kazakh tax authorities against human rights NGOs international legal initiative, June 2021, https://www.omct.org/en/resources/urgent-interventions/harassment-on-the-part-of-the-kazakh-tax-authorities-against-human-rights-ngo-international-legal-initiative; Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Rights Groups Harassed, February 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/02/22/kazakhstan-rights-groups-harassed [66] ICNL, Kazakhstan, May 2021, https://www.icnl.org/resources/civic-freedom-monitor/kazakhstan [67] Government of Kazakhstan, President Tokayev Signs a Decree on Further Measures of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the Field of Human Rights, June 2021, https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/mfa-delhi/press/news/details/215657?lang=kk [68] ACCA, Expert: there are no political prisoners in Kazakhstan, but they are, July 2021, https://acca.media/en/expert-there-are-no-political-prisoners-in-kazakhstan-but-they-are/ [69] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Jailed Kazakh Political Prisoner In Solitary After Slitting Wrists, Rights Group Says, RFE/RL, April 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/jailed-kazakh-political-prisoner-in-solitary-after-slitting-wrists-rights-group-says/31193040.html; EU in Kazakhstan, Twitter post, Twitter, April 2021, https://twitter.com/EUinKazakhstan/status/1380141287760859141; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Jailed Opposition Activist Unexpectedly Granted Early Release, July 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-activist-abishev-release/31359606.html [70] U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan, https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/kazakhstan/; Chris Rickleton, Kazakhstan: Activist dies in detention, piling pressure on the authorities, Eurasianet, February 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-activist-dies-in-detention-piling-pressure-on-the-authorities [71] RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Writers Urge President To Release Dissident Poet Atabek, RFE/RL, February 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-writers-urge-president-to-release-dissident-poet-atabek/31121177.html; English PEN, Kazakhstan: take action for imprisoned poet Aron Atabek, https://www.englishpen.org/posts/campaigns/kazakhstan-take-action-for-imprisoned-poet-aron-atabek/ [72] European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html [73] Kazakhstan International Bureau for Human Rights and Rule of Law, Dostiyarov was reportedly beaten, July 2021, https://bureau.kz/kk/ysty%d2%9b/belsendi-dostiyarovtyng-soqqygha-zhyghylghany-habarlandy/ [74] ACCA, Expert: people are deprived of civil and political rights in Kazakhstan, May 2021, https://acca.media/en/expert-people-are-deprived-of-civil-and-political-rights-in-kazakhstan/ [75] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expressions during COVID-19; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html; IPHR, Kazakhstan: Free civil rights defender Asya Tulesova, June 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-free-civil-rights-defender-asya-tulesova.html; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Kazakh Court Convicts Activist Charged With Assaulting Police, August 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-court-convicts-activist-charged-with-assaulting-police/30779401.html IPHR, Kazakhstan: Free civil rights defender Asya Tulesova, June 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-free-civil-rights-defender-asya-tulesova.html [76] RFE/RL, Kazakh Activist Receives Sentence For Links With Banned Political Group, December 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/another-kazakh-activist-receives-parole-like-sentence-for-links-with-banned-political-group/31015204.html [77] Asemgul Mukhitovna, A resident of Makanchi died at the police station. A case was initiated under the article “Torture”, Radio Azattyq, October 2020, https://www.azattyq.org/a/30900922.html [78] U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kazakhstan, https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/kazakhstan/; Human Rights Commissioner in the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/ombudsman/activities/1030?lang=en [79] See State Department ibid and ACCA, Kazakhstan: tired of bullying, convict threatens to hang himself, March 2021, https://acca.media/en/kazakhstan-tired-of-bullying-convict-threatens-to-hang-himself/ [80] Duke University, Kazakhstan Rule of Law project, January 2020, https://researchfunding.duke.edu/kazakhstan-rule-law-project [81] Saniyash Toyken, A group of people who demanded a meeting with Asanov spent the night in the building of the Supreme Court, Radio Azattyq, June 2021, https://www.azattyq.org/a/31310280.html [82] Court, An Introduction, https://court.aifc.kz/an-introduction/ [83] Christian Schaich and Christian Reitemeier, The Republic of Kazakhstan’s New Administrative Procedures Code, ZOIS, June 2021, https://en.zois-berlin.de/publications/the-republic-of-kazakhstans-new-administrative-procedures-code; Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Administrative Procedural and Procedural Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, (with changes as of 01.07.2021), https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=35132264#pos=1;-13 [84] Mehmet Volkan Kasikci, Documenting the Tragedy in Xinjiang: An Insider’s View of Atajurt, The Diplomat, January 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/documenting-the-tragedy-in-xinjiang-an-insiders-view-of-atajurt/ [85] Reid Standish, Astana Tried to Silence China Critics, Foreign Policy, March 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/11/uighur-china-kazakhstan-astana/ [86] Agence France-Presse, Xinjiang activist freed in Kazakh court after agreeing to stop campaigning, The Guardian, August 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/17/xinjiang-activist-freed-in-kazakh-court-after-agreeing-to-stop-campaigning; Freedom Now, Kazakhstan: UN Declares Detention of Human Rights Activist Serikzhan Bilash a Violation of International Law, November 2020, https://www.freedom-now.org/kazakhstan-un-declares-detention-of-human-rights-activist-serikzhan-bilash-a-violation-of-international-law/ [87] Bruce Pannier, Activist Defending Ethnic Kazakhs In China Explains Why He Had To Flee Kazakhstan, RFE/RL, January 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/31051495.html [88] Reid Standish and Aigerim Toleukhanova, Kazakh Activism Against China's Internment Camps Is Broken, But Not Dead, April 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-protests-china-xinjiang-rights-abuses/31186209.html [89] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan’s Dugan community stunned by spasm of deadly bloodletting, February 2020, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstans-dungan-community-stunned-by-spasm-of-deadly-bloodletting; Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Trial over deadly ethnic violence leaves bitter taste for Dungans, Eurasianet, April 2021, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-trial-over-deadly-ethnic-violence-leaves-bitter-taste-for-dungans [90] ITUC CSI IGN, Kazakhstan: Statement of the ITUC Pan-European Regional Council, April 2017, https://www.ituc-csi.org/kazakhstan-statement-of-the-ituc; RFE/RL’s Kazakh Service, Hunger Strike Protests By Oil Workers Growing In Western Kazakhstan, January 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-oil-workers-hunger-strike/28241775.html [91] ITUC CSI IGN, List of affiliated organisations, November 2019, https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/list_of_affiliates_nov_2019.pdf [92] IndustriALL Global Union, IndustriALL calls for release of Kazakh trade union leader, July 2019, http://www.industriall-union.org/industriall-calls-for-release-of-kazakh-trade-union-leader [93] IndustriALL Global Union, Kazakh union leader Erlan Baltabay released, March 2020, http://www.industriall-union.org/kazakh-union-leader-erlan-baltabay-released [94] Human Rights Council, Advance Unedited Version, Freedom Now, May 2021, https://www.freedom-now.org/wp-content/uploads/AUV_WGAD-Opinion_2021-5-KAZ.pdf; Freedom Now, Kazakhstan: Freedom Now Condemns Treatment of Imprisoned Labour Activist, July 2021,https://www.freedom-now.org/kazakhstan-freedom-now-condemns-treatment-of-imprisoned-labor-activist/ [95] Mihra Rittman, Kazakhstan Adopts Long-Promised Amendments to Trade Union Law, Human Rights Watch, December 2020, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/17/kazakhstan-adopts-long-promised-amendments-trade-union-law [96] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Independent Union Under Threat of Suspension, January 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/01/28/kazakhstan-independent-union-under-threat-suspension [97] International Labour Conference, Committee on the Application of Standards, July 2021, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_804447.pdf [98] Radio Azattyk, In Almaty, Glovo couriers who went on strike tried to block the street, July 2021, https://rus.azattyk.org/a/v-almaty-obyavivshie-zabastovku-kurery-glovo-popytalis-perekryt-ulitsu/31345823.html [99] RSF, 2021 World Press Freedom Index, https://rsf.org/en/ranking# [100] Sher Khashimov and Raushan Zhandayeva, Kazakhstan’s Alternative Media Is Thriving—and in Danger, Foreign Policy, July 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/07/12/kazakhstan-alternative-media-thriving-danger/ [101] Ibid. [102] See Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [103] RSF, Regional newspaper editor harassed after investigating real estate scandal, February 2021, https://rsf.org/en/news/regional-newspaper-editor-harassed-after-investigating-real-estate-scandal [104] Order of the Minister of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated June 21, 2013 No. 138, https://online.zakon.kz/m/document/?doc_id=31431046#sub_id=100 CPJ, Kazakhstan adopts new accreditation requirements that journalists fear will promote censorship, March 2021, https://cpj.org/2021/03/kazakhstan-adopts-new-accreditation-requirements-that-journalists-fear-will-promote-censorship/ [105] Justice for Journalists Foundation, Kazakhstan, 2020, https://jfj.fund/report-2020_2/#kz [106] IPHR, Kazakhstan: Massive restrictions on expression during COVID-19,; sudden banning of peaceful opposition, August 2020, https://www.iphronline.org/kazakhstan-massive-restrictions-on-expression-during-covid-19-sudden-banning-of-peaceful-opposition.html [107] Paolo Sorbello, Kazakhstan Decriminalizes Defamation, Keeps Hindering Free Media, June 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/07/kazakhstan-decriminalizes-defamation-keeps-hindering-free-media/; Legislationline, Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, July 2014, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8260/file/Kazakhstan_CC_2014_2016_en.pdf [108] Mike Eckel and Sarah Alikhan, Big Houses, Deep Pockets, RFE/RL, December 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-family-wealth/31013097.html?fbclid=IwAR38vC-WSkYBgPMTm--5XVsTgP5c3oesqt7eomZmsfeUiOjahO5QThDmcGU [109] RFE/RL, After Seven Years, ‘Kazakhgate’ Scandal Ends With Minor Indictment, August 2010, https://www.rferl.org/a/After_Seven_Years_Kazakhgate_Scandal_Ends_With_Minor_Indictment_/2123800.html; Steve LeVine, Was James Giffen telling the truth?, Foreign Policy, November 2010, https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/11/19/was-james-giffen-telling-the-truth/ [110] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev-linked billionaire sucked into UK court battle, Eurasianet, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/international-criticism-of-duvanov-conviction-mounts-against-kazakhstan. See also Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [111] https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-linked-billionaire-sucked-into-uk-court-battle [112] https://forbes.kz/ranking/50_bogateyshih_biznesmenov_kazahstana_-_2020 [113] Robert Booth, Prince Andrew tried to broker crown property deal for Kazakh oligarch, The Guardian, July 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jul/03/prince-andrew-broker-crown-property-kazakh-oligarch; Ian Gallagher, Kazakh-born socialite ‘Lady Goga’ who partied with her ‘very, very close friend’ Prince Andrew at her 30th birthday reveals she leads a far quieter life after turning 40, Mail Online, March 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8113173/The-quiet-life-Lady-Goga.html [114] Financial Times, The secret scheme to skim millions off central Asia’s pipeline megaproject, December 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/80f25f82-5f21-4a56-b2bb-7a48e61dd9c6; Eurasianet, Financial Times: Kazakh leader’s son-in-law skimmed millions from Chinese loads, December 2020, https://eurasianet.org/financial-times-kazakh-leaders-son-in-law-skimmed-millions-from-chinese-loans [115] See: Joanna Lillis, Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan, IB Taurus, October 2018. [116] Joanna Lillis, Kazakhstan: Rakhatgate Saga Over as Former Son-in-Law Found Hanged, Eurasianet, February 2015, https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-rakhatgate-saga-over-as-former-son-in-law-found-hanged [117]BBC News, Kazakh family win Unexplained Wealth Order battle over London homes, April 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-52216011 [118] George Greenwood, Emanuele Midolo, Marcus Leroux and Leigh Baldwin, Strange case of Dariga Nazarbayeva, mystery owner of Sherlock Holmes’s Baker Street address, The Times, November 2020, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/strange-case-of-dariga-nazarbayeva-mystery-owner-of-sherlock-holmess-baker-street-address-23q7c2fpl [119] Sumaira FH, Nazarbayev’s Daughter Secured Seat In Kazakh Parliament On Ruling Party’s Ticket, Urdu Point, January 2021, https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/nazarbayevs-daughter-secured-seat-in-kazakh-1138712.html [120] John Heathershaw, Twitter post, Twitter, July 2021, https://twitter.com/HeathershawJ/status/1414900706771865602?s=20; Susan Hawley, George Havenhand and Tom Robinson, New Briefing: Red Carpet for Dirty Money – The UK’s Golden Visa Regime, Spotlight on Corruption, July 2021, https://www.spotlightcorruption.org/new-briefing-red-carpet-for-dirty-money-the-uks-golden-visa-regime/; Dominic Kennedy, National security review of golden visas for investors, The Times, July 2021, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/national-security-review-of-golden-visas-for-investors-mz5zsnf0c [121] Department for International Trade, Trade & Investment Factsheets, Kazakhstan, UK Gov, July 2021, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/998607/kazakhstan-trade-and-investment-factsheet-2021-07-07.pdf [122] Ron Synovitz and Manas Kaiyrtayuly, How Top Officials, Relatives Scooped Up Kazakhstan’s Higher – Education Sector, RFE/RL, June 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-universities/31326535.html [123] Pew Research Center, Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050, https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ [124] Legislationline, The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8207/file/Kazakhstan_Constitution_1995_am_2017_en.pdf [125] Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions, http://religions-congress.org/ [126] United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Annual Reports, https://www.uscirf.gov/annual-reports [127] Legislationline, The Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan of October 11, 2011, No 483-IV, On Religious Activity and Religious Associations, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/4091/file/Kazakhstan_Law_religious_freedoms_organisations_2011_en.pdf [128] Felix Corley, Kazakhstan: 134 administrative prosecutions in 2020, Forum 18, February 2021, https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2634 [129] Zhanagul Zhursin and Farangis Najibullah, The Hijab Debate Intensifies As School Starts In Kazakhstan, RFE/RL, September 2019, https://www.rferl.org/a/the-hijab-debate-intensifies-as-school-starts-in-kazakhstan/30148088.html [130] OSCE, Kazakhstan - Parliamentary Elections, 10 January 2021, https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kazakhstan/470850 [131] Amina Chaya, What’s wrong with the domestic violence law in Kazakhstan? Part two, Masa Media, November 2020, https://masa.media/ru/site/chto-netak-szakonom-obytovom-nasilii-vkazakhstane-chast-vtoraya [132] Evgeniya Mikhailidi, Alina Zhartieva, Nazerke Kurmangazinova, Victorious Violence, Vlast, February 2021, https://vlast.kz/obsshestvo/43869-pobedivsee-nasilie.html [133] Kazinform, Domestic and domestic violence: MPs and experts talked about the new law, October 2020, https://www.inform.kz/ru/semeyno-bytovoe-nasilie-deputaty-i-eksperty-rasskazali-o-novom-zakone_a3710389 [134] Malika Autalipova and Timur Nusimbekov, The Largest Women’s March in the History of Kazakhstan, Adamar, March 2021, https://adamdar.ca/en/post/the-largest-women-s-march-in-the-history-of-kazakhstan; Asylkhan Mamashevich, National values, LGBT rights and “justification before the European Parliament”. How did the society evaluate the women’s march?, Radio Azattyq, March 2021, https://www.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-gender-equality-different-opinions/31142716.html [135] Human Rights Watch, Kazakhstan: Feminist Group Denied Registration, September 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/09/13/kazakhstan-feminist-group-denied-registration; Mihra Rittmann, Activists Detained in Kazakhstan ‘For Their Own Safety’, Human Rights Watch, June 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/06/01/activists-detained-kazakhstan-their-own-safety [136] The Constitution contains Article 14. 2 which promises ‘No one shall be subject to any discrimination for reasons of origin, social, property status, occupation, sex, race, nationality, language, attitude towards religion, convictions, place of residence or any other circumstances’. See The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Legislationonline, https://www.legislationline.org/download/id/8207/file/Kazakhstan_Constitution_1995_am_2017_en.pdf; RFE/RL Kazakh Service, Sexual Minorities In Kazakhstan Hide Who They Are To Avoid Abuse, June 2021 https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-lgbt-hide-from-abuse/31316186.html [137] Draft Law ‘On protection of children from information harming their health and development’, 2015; Ministry of Information and Communication of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Instruction ‘On Classification of Informational Products’ and ‘Methodology of Defining Informational Products for Children (Not) Harming Their Health and Development’, 2018. [138] Zhanna Shayakhmetova, Positive Dynamics Observed in Trade Between Kazakhstan and China, The Astana Times, April 2021, https://astanatimes.com/2021/04/positive-dynamics-observed-in-trade-between-kazakhstan-and-china/ [139] Ayia Reno, “You need to have not only beautiful reform packages.” EU special envoy on relations with Kazakhstan, Radio Azattyq, January 2021, https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-eu-relations-peter-burian-special-representative-central-asia/31029755.html; European Parliament, RC-B9-0144/2021, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0144_EN.html [140] OSCE, Summits, https://www.osce.org/summits [post_title] => Retreating Rights - Kazakhstan: Introduction [post_excerpt] => [post_status] => publish [comment_status] => open [ping_status] => open [post_password] => [post_name] => retreating-rights-kazakhstan-introduction [to_ping] => [pinged] => [post_modified] => 2021-07-22 10:59:43 [post_modified_gmt] => 2021-07-22 09:59:43 [post_content_filtered] => [post_parent] => 0 [guid] => https://fpc.org.uk/?p=6003 [menu_order] => 0 [post_type] => post [post_mime_type] => [comment_count] => 0 [filter] => raw ) [15] => WP_Post Object ( [ID] => 5987 [post_author] => 3 [post_date] => 2021-07-22 11:00:15 [post_date_gmt] => 2021-07-22 10:00:15 [post_content] => As we approach the 30th anniversary of Kazakhstan’s independence this publication finds the country at an important inflection point in its history. The gradual passing of the torch from the First President (Nazarbayev) to President Tokayev, the growing articulation of social concerns in recent years as living standards have been squeezed for many, and the uncertain future that lies ahead for its economy given the global transition away from fossil fuels, all give cause for pause and reflection. Over the last 30 years Kazakhstan’s ruling elite has delivered substantial economic growth - albeit particularly benefiting itself - and has mostly maintained stability between the country’s different ethnic groups. This has come at the clear cost of almost all political freedoms and many civil liberties. The Government and its supporters still argue that gradual change will enable Kazakhstan to transition to democracy and help ‘evolve’ the political culture in Kazakhstan. The Government’s critics, understandably point to the lack of change at the heart of the country’s political system over the last 30 years, where reforms have helped deliver improvements in the standards of living and the delivery of state services but have not lead to a meaningful transfer in political power from the elite to the citizen. The only political choice in Kazakhstan, such as Tokayev assuming the Presidency, is exercised by those already in power. While President Tokayev has promised a ‘listening state’ and committed to delivering reforms that would improve freedoms and make the Government more responsive, so far change from what has gone before has been relatively limited. President Tokayev’s approach seems to be an updating of the existing path of modernisation without democratisation or reform within the system that improves state efficiency and outcomes while mostly retaining existing authoritarian power structures. While the bulk of the population has so far broadly (if sometimes grudgingly) accepted the trade-off between stability and repression, the recent protest movements have highlighted that this cannot necessarily be taken for granted going forwards. The negative outlook for Kazakhstan’s oil and gas wealth, may further exacerbate the existing inequalities within society and frustration at the kleptocratic nature of the current system.[1] So when examining how to try to achieve real change in Kazakhstan there are two main tracks that local activists are pursuing. As Colleen Wood puts in well in her essay ‘Some believe in incremental reform that is achieved through educating authorities and collaborating with government bodies. This involves close monitoring of abuses and going through proper legal channels to redress them; it involves going through the hoops required to register a political party, to try and run a campaign and to take a seat at the table. Others prefer more expansive changes – the overhaul of Kazakhstan’s system of government from a superpresidential system to a parliamentary one, for example – to gradual reform. They opt for direct action and street protests over government working groups and committees, pointing to their constitutionally-protected right to peaceful assembly to justify skirting the required procedure for sanctioned protests. This ideological and tactical pluralism may not be ‘efficient,’ but securing the rights of all to participate in politics is central to improving Kazakhstan’s human rights record.’ What seems clear is that both approaches together are going to be needed in order to drive more fundamental change in Kazakhstan, both in terms of outcomes for citizens and in the nature of the system. Both sets of activists will need both increased local mobilisation and international support to help drive specific changes to make each path more navigable. President Tokayev’s June 2021 Decree ‘On further human rights measures in Kazakhstan’ and the upcoming human rights action plan provide a helpful framework through which to assess the Government’s willingness to change its current course in response to input from local and international partners.[2] Tokayev has committed the Government to take further steps to address:
- ‘The mechanisms of interaction with the UN treaty bodies and special procedures of the UN Human Rights Council;
- Ensuring the rights of victims of human trafficking;
- Human rights of citizens with disabilities;
- The elimination of discrimination against women;
- The right to freedom of association;
- The right to freedom of expression;
- The human right to life and public order;
- Increasing the efficiency of interaction with non-governmental organisations; and
- Human rights in criminal justice and enforcement, and prevention of torture and ill-treatment.’[3]